Yellow banner with pen and letters

Author: Aldo Matteucci

Civilisation and its Enemies: The Next Stage of History

2004

Lee Harris is not an academic – his name would hardly be quoted in obscure learned journals. In the aftermath of 9/11 he has written this book in an attempt to articulate and argue a position that justifies (both retaliatory and precautionary) military intervention while rejecting racism or fundamentalism. A ‘loner’ who shares many ideas with the Straussian school (but without the latter’s undertone of righteous victim), Harris may be giving voice to the worldview underpinning much current U.S. action in international political affairs. He is worth engaging.
81hMbU78KnL.jpg
Harris’ line of argument is simple in its core. It is a bad and evil world out there, at the borders of our civilisation, and full of enemies. We forget it at our peril. It is an illusion to pretend that the ‘enemy’ is simply misguided, or misunderstood, or politically immature – ‘a friend we haven’t done enough for yet’. For Harris an ‘enemy is someone who is willing to die in order to kill you. And while it is true that the enemy always hates us for a reason, it is his reason and not ours. He does not hate us for our faults any more than for our virtues. He sees a different world from ours, and in the world he sees, we are his enemy.’ They hate us – because we are their enemy. A society is thus confronted with two antithetic tasks: ‘The first duty of all civilisation is to create pockets of peacebleness in which violence is not used as a means of obtaining one’s objective; the second duty is to defend these pockets against those who try to disrupt their peace, from within or from without. (…) Only those that have mastered ruthlessness can defend their society from the ruthlessness of others.’ The term ‘master’ had a double meaning. Achievement – to stay atop the ruthless league of has to be the most ruthless. Conquest – to protect civilisation one must be able to forego ruthlessness within. Absolute power corrupts absolutely – laments Lord Acton. Incorruptible power can both preserve and destroy – asserts Lee Harris – and incorruptible power is doable. There have been three distinct ‘theories of the enemy’, claims Harris: (a) the enemy as the Greedy (the Marxist view) – (hopefully) to be dissuaded from war by commerce and arbitration as capitalism provided the material basis for abundance; (b) the enemy as the Oppressed (Fukuyama) – (hopefully) to be dissuaded from upheaval by liberal democracy that recognises one another’s legitimacy; (c) the enemy as the Overbearing (Huntington) – the battle of civilisations for recognition by the rest of the world as ‘universally valid’ – for which we don’t know the political answer to it yet. But is this list of ‘enemies’ exhaustive? Harris extends the concept of ‘enemy’ – he defines him as someone who is acting out an evil ‘fantasy ideology’. Mussolini’s Fascism acted out such a fantasy at the expense of the Ethiopians; Hitler’s Nazism at the expense of the Jews and the Slavs. Nothing these people could have done would have saved them from their enemy. He then proceeds to identify 9/11 as the product of ‘fantasy ideology’ – i.e. as ‘symbolic drama, a great ritual demonstrating the power of Allah, a pageant designed to convey a message not to the American people but to the Arab world.’ Such ‘fantasy ideologies’ belong to the class of ‘transformative beliefs’; they are not grounded in fact, but aspire to shape and change the reality in accordance to the will. ‘fantasy ideologies’ – so Harris – differ fundamentally from other ideologies in that they are the product of abstractions, and have not grown organically from experience, and toil – from the confrontation ‘with the immovable object called the real world’. Harris argues that the principle of self-determination [1] has failed us badly, for it has facilitated the emergence of ‘fantasy ideologies’. By disallowing intervention in the internal affairs of a country it sanctions the status quo of despotism and tyranny – the most common and base form of ‘fantasy ideology’. By awarding statehood not on merits, but on the basis of ‘historical precedent’ or other ‘wishful’ criteria, the principle of self-determination channels power into the hands of those who have not had to cope with reality in order to acquire power. In other words, the principle creates ‘moral hazard’. Accidental ‘transformative events’ [2] now act as fuses to the keg, or yield unsuspected historical possibilities: (a) enormous rents (e.g. oil revenues) yield economic power to undeserving individuals; and (b) WMD are available for the buying. ‘Fantasy ideologies’ of ruthless people today have the power to destroy the world, or at least to plunge it into chaos. Old-established concepts, or true and proven ethical and political categories, so Harris, are powerless in dealing with this evolution; and we don’t know what alternative political rules may yield a politically stable system. Ruthlessness, i.e. the readiness to break all the rules (especially the one against self-preservation) plunges us into the ‘civility trap’ – the refusal to acknowledge the incivility of others. Yet without rules ‘cognitive anarchy’ ensues – no one can any longer predict with confidence what the other will do, and it becomes impossible to calibrate in advance the magnitude of any threat or any risk. By implication: ‘in those situations where it is irrational to voluntarily take a risk that involves life and death, those who are willing to act irrationally and to take this risk will be able to force any rational player in acceding to his will.’ I pause in the exposition to muse over this part of the analysis. ‘Breaking rules’ of war is nothing new. The strong have always sought to establish ‘rules’ of war, claiming the need to avoid ‘cognitive anarchy’, in practice to secure their supremacy. The weak always sought to ‘break the rules’ in order to overcome unfavourable odds [3]. We have this situation every time a technological or institutional breakthrough breaks the attack/defence deadlock. Eventually countermeasures emerge, and ‘calibration’ becomes possible anew. War is always about getting killed. Each of us fights because he expects (against all reason) that the odds will be in his favour and he’ll survive. The ‘irrationality’ Harris alludes to emerges when the personal odds of survival are known beforehand tangentially to approach zero. Yet each country has a folk hero that sacrificed himself for the ‘fatherland’. The personal sacrifice yielded a great result: winning a battle, saving the city from invasion etc., reflecting the high value we place of life. What is disconcerting for our mind is the current banalisation of ‘heroism’ – suicide-attack as a humdrum affair, as a daily tactic, rather than as out- of-the-ordinary means for exceptional outcomes. Success does not automatically follow ruthlessness – only if the other side blinks. As the bluff is called, success comes from the barrel of the gun. Hitler’s strength was not that he was ruthless enough to bluff his way to success, but that he had the military power to back up his bluff, and did so when challenged. In the end Germany proved indeed to be more than a match for all but one power – the US with its infinite resources. To conclude: ruthlessness is nothing new. What is new is Al-Qaeda use of ruthlessness to create theatre – illusion – as Harris himself admits (p. 5) rather than achieve a concrete goal. Al-Qaeda’s only hopes of success are either to leverage its theatre into an organised Islamic mass movement that can project force worldwide, or to bring democracies to self-destruct by exhausting their assets in a wild goose chase, resp. destroying the values on which their legitimacy rests. So far Al-Quaeda has signally failed with its first alternative, but succeeded beyond its dreams in morally, institionally and economically destabilising the U.S. In what to me looks like a puzzling afterthought, Harris revisits the concept of ‘enemy’ later in the book (Chapter 10). Here the enemy is not a misguided follower of a ‘fantasy ideology’, but the result of an attempt to establish a civilisation. Building on Hegel’s master/slave dialectic he explains that ‘ruthlessness founds the state, for only those who have mastered ruthlessness can defend themselves against it.’ (p. 173). Well, if ‘violence or force is both legitimate and justifiable but if and only if it is used to establish a civilised order” why should today’s attempt to create such a state – in Palestine or anywhere else – be dismissed as ‘fantasy ideology’? All civilisations have foundations myths. Tradition-oriented societies (including our own Greek and Roman forbearers) tend to view the past as golden and the future as dark or leaden. Western civilisation might be the only one that views the past as barbaric, and has Whiggish view of the future. Where the likes of Thomas Hobbe, Guizot or de Gobineau got their facts about the ‘brutish past’ is anyone’s guess, for they built their theories on sailors’ tales and rank speculation. As we slowly recover the memory of past civilisations when they encountered the West, one is forced to admit that – whatever the ‘other’ – we were at least as brutish as the ‘brutes’. Harris spends some time defining ‘civilisation’. I’d make it simpler. ‘Civilisation’ is the set of ‘insider’ rules that yield longer-term trust among the members of a ‘group’ and thus allow co-operation (and division of labour). The rules defining membership in the group are crucial. At first they may have been based on ‘accidental’ criteria – kinship, race, birth, or tribe – hence membership was essentially ‘closed’. Outsiders were not subject to the ‘insider’ rules, and could be treated at will – killed, enslaved, raped. Within the group government was hierarchical (the chief, the elder), inheritable, and oppressive for the individual. Also it was inefficient, for it failed to ensure continuity of competence. The Greeks innovated in social organisation. Competitive struggle between males (agonostics) being the core of their culture, they moved the ‘team’ rather than the family upfront. Membership in the team became open to all those who (a) were willing to abide by the team’s rules, and were not (b) rejected by the current team members or (c) expelled from it. Once inside the team, all had equal rights – egalitarian self-government had been born. The concept of the ‘common good’ emerged – which was determined by consensus and might imply individual sacrifices. Fairness – the capacity to resolve differences without resorting to a judging third party – prevailed. Rules were made ‘by ourselves for ourselves’, and were no longer ‘customary’. Leadership within the group became elective, rather than inherited. Transfer of power within the group remained difficult; the most common way of removing a delegitimised leader was ostracism – a divisive ‘nuclear option’. Finally, the team stayed small, and with a strong oligarchic flavour, for individuals from outside the community could ‘join’ only on an individual basis. The budding Roman Republic needed to sustain ‘critical military mass’ as it expanded quickly from city-state to world power. It invented the ‘merger’ of whole allied cities and states into Roman citizenship – political ‘symbiosis’. It also transformed political leadership in an open-ended elective career that did away with ostracism. Justice replaced fairness – a specialised body of judges administered written rules established by the body politic. Social organisation as a ‘team’ proved to be a major institutional innovation, and a winning one. The West moved ahead of other political systems based on kinship. The nation-state was the final product, together with its capacity to wage total war. This capacity revealed the fatal weakness of the system. The collapse of the ‘legitimate’ powers after WWI gave ruthless groups the chance to appropriate the nation for their evil purposes. Three elements were essential: (a) perceived legitimacy; (b) psychological motivation (the ‘fantasy ideology’); and (c) a totalitarian organisation (the party). Such ruthlessness had to be fought ruthlessly. It befell the US to develop the way to do so. Nuclear terror concentrated absolute destructive power into the hands of the U.S. President. Harris concludes: ‘Civilised life begins only to exist when men have learned how to fight ruthlessness without succumbing to it themselves, and it only exists for as long as they remember the trick of how this is done. The trick has been mastered by the USA.’ (p. 167). This occurred during the Cold War, when the US President was given advance authority to retaliate to a Soviet attack. And in a sweeping corollary he argues: ‘America must use its power, unilaterally if need be, to destroy or remove any group of people who are deliberately and consciously following a policy of ruthlessness, whether this group is a state against another state, a state against its own people, or an al-Qaeda-like organisation.’ At the end of his book Harris gives a further justification for the US position: ‘The US is uniquely equipped to act as the new sovereign not simply because of its power, but because of its tolerance. (…) Its diversity reflects that of the world, and this means that for the first time in world history a great power is genuinely capable of transcending the limitations to human cooperation imposed by the divisions along the lines of race, sect, and ethnicity.’ (p. 203). For a country whose origins are grounded in slavery and religious intolerance and zealotry, this is indeed a reasonable basis for its claim to being the ‘new sovereign’. After this sweeping tour of history it is time to catch one’s breath: Ruthlessness comes in different flavours. There is ‘worldly ruthlessness’. We have met many ruthless men in the past: Xerxes, Alexander, Genghis Khan, or Napoleon. Communism belongs here, for it wanted to create Paradise on earth. Nazism has already religious or transcendental streaks – destroying the Jews was more an act of faith than a means to establish Aryan world rule. Then there is ‘transcendental ruthlessness’ of the fundamentalist (of whatever persuasion) for whom life has only instrumental value. Religious wars fall in this category. ‘Worldly ruthlessness’ can be fought through war with hope of success: the Greeks proved it at Salamis and Plataea. Many a great tyrant of the past went down to defeat when his resources were exhausted. Nothing new or special here, I’d say. ‘Transcendental ruthlessness’ is special in that it fights without regard to its own losses [4] – the godly soldiers get their reward in heaven. This has both strengths and weaknesses. The strength is the unquestioning commitment. The weakness is that self-immolation is not quite as popular as the hysterical press might want us to believe. The Assassin movement killed dozens, not thousands. Furthermore, in a ‘high-tech’ world religious fanaticism and technical expertise seldom match – James Bond movies notwithstanding. This has been proven correct once again – militarily Al-Qaeda remains a failure. Even should they manage to use WMD they are more likely to disrupt than destroy our civilisation. In other words, in the end the ‘audit of war’ applies to them as well, and here faith yields little. The U.S. ‘experience with ruthlessness’ during the Cold War may not be as probative as of Harris makes it out to be. There are grounds to believe that the Soviet Union was far less ‘ruthless’ – albeit remaining ruthlessly opportunistic – that we made ourselves believe then (see Cuban missile crisis). Proof might be seen in the fact that the ‘ruthless’ system imploded without firing a shot across its borders as it did so. The U.S. President’s power during the Cold War was explicitly retaliatory: it was based on calculated (and appropriate) response – deterrence and eventual retaliation – not preventive or precautionary aggression. Harris conclusion goes well beyond means to ensure ‘survival or reprisal’ of the U.S. and its friends in the face of ‘imminent ruthlessness’. In a grand intellectual leap of faith it is applied both to potential ‘ruthlessness’ and to any ‘ruthlessness’ between states and within states. The ‘precautionary principle’ is implied, and is the only justification. Said principle is – top say the least – logically controversial. Harris does not explain how the U.S. is to read the minds of peoples and determine potential friend from foe. Even Cain got his mark only after the deed. Whether the U.S. has the means, material as well as institutional, to be the self-appointed ‘defender of the Western values’ is unproven. In practice the U.S. have proven themselves far from fit for their ambition. In both Afghanistan and Iraq their intelligence was wrong, their plans for the reconstruction were wrong and went wrong, and its capacity for self-restraint in exercising ruthless power has shown to be inadequate. They may achieve something – thanks to the sheer means invested – but the outcome will hardly bring the world closer to the ultimate demise of ruthlessness. To conclude this longish section – if the case for ruthlessness is weak, the case for U.S. discretionary ‘right to ruthlessness’ hardly stand up. An apologia contra intellectum follows. Harris lashes out against the ‘fanaticism of abstract thought’. He marshals Hegel to this purpose: ‘Hegel’s point is that violence is inevitable once people have set out to reshape the world according to their own ideals – ideals that turn out to be nothing more that a kind of intellectual make-believe. The resultant complex is a ‘fantasy ideology’…’ and he goes on to point out that for Hegel, ‘the ideal exists primarily in its incarnation, in the flesh and blood of concrete practice between human beings in face-to-face local encounters, in consistent and predictable patterns of behaviour.’ And then: ‘For Hegel it is our abstract ideas that fall short of reality, not reality that falls short of our abstract ideas, and the only way to make the two fit is to force our ideas to be confronted with the reality, instead of trying to force reality to fit our ideas.’ The only way to cure our ideals of this defect, Harris continues, is to have other people challenge them. Something real then may emerge from the compromise among conflicting abstractions. ‘Such compromise creates a new form of reality, one in which what before had been merely ideal and abstract has now gained a foothold in the concrete and practical. This new form of reality not only allows people to work together in terms of the newly created reality, but it also allows them to use this previous compromise as a pattern on which to model other compromises, where what is at stake are ever more serious clashes of our ideals.’ Such compromises end by creating ‘institutions’ and that’s how ‘Reason’ becomes the ‘Real’. I’d be happy to go along with all that Hegel – through Harris – has said, except… we know that ‘truth’ is not the statistical average of contradictory ‘fantasy ideologies’, except in banal situations. The clock turns towards the left not for a reason, but by chance. As we know from evolution, species are never the ‘fittest’ in absolute terms; they are the fittest strictly in those particular circumstances that made their emergence possible. In nature one observes loads of ‘half-baked’ species, whose sole merit is that they made it somehow past the pole of reality. If a political reality, once established by chance on the ground, is unassailable, then we privilege the status quo unduly. Counterfactuals don’t count in any case. The only way to ‘improve’ any situation is to start from abstract reasoning, as poor as a guide it is. Ironically for Harris , the best counter-example is the American Revolution. It started out as the most noble of ‘fantasy ideologies’. It got a lease on life due to contingencies – isolation, British incompetence and, critically, French military assistance. More immediately, this section of Harris book tends to invalidate the previous claim to a discretionary US ‘right to ruthlessness’. ‘Fantasy ideologies’ dixit Harris, are not the purview of intellectuals alone; they emerge whenever ideas or perceptions are not forced into a confrontation with reality – when they fail to take the Hegelian ‘road of despair’. Granted. An easy case could be made that in fact ‘fantasy ideology’ underpins current U.S. action in international political affairs. Doesn’t the unwillingness of the U.S. administration to engage with its allies in earnest over the goals and the conduit of the ‘war on terrorism’ points in that direction? Hasn’t reality shown time and again the U.S. administration to have been wrong? Yet this has made no impression on those who prize steadfastness above all else. One might even venture that the current ‘political immunity’ of the Administration from the fiscal and human consequences of its actions is what makes its current indulgence possible – all these points fulfil Harris’ criteria for a ‘fantasy ideology’. Just as the Arabs live off the oil rent, the U.S. is living of the rent of being the sole super-power left in the world – and having WMD. And how is one to square the current ‘idealism’ in the US administration for ‘spreading democracy around the world’ with the Harris scepticism about ideology? Harrrrum… I don’t know what to make of the last two chapters. Harris embarks on the search of the ‘unique’ contribution the West has made to mankind. I’d agree wholeheartedly that ‘shame’ and ‘trust’ based on ‘codes of honour’ are essential for civilisation. In order for rules of cooperation to be effective they have to be internalised and self-policing. Sole reliance on external control and fear of punishment would defeat the purpose, for the costs of enforcement would become prohibitive. The West’s unique contribution to mankind – so Harris – is the secular offshoot of ‘Protestant doctrine that held that every man could know God’s will in every particular case before him. This claim was made all the more extraordinary because it was accompanied by a rejection of the trustworthiness of human reason. Reason for the first Protestants was not merely the slave of passion; it was its whore. (…) The answer was conscience.’ (p. 186). This is achieved by self-mastery, character building and moral education. This is not ‘repressive’ but transformative. Such an ‘ethical community’ yields the highest state of freedom. The ‘incidental’ result of this transformation is capitalism – which has been ‘a progressive force in the world’ and for good measure ‘is the only known preventive for the rule by gangster and warlord’. The assertion that ‘conscience’ is a uniquely Western (or Protestant) contribution to mankind is baseless. Harris conclusion: ‘This is the reason for America’s great power – the legacy of the Protestant conscience that was diffused through the professional attitude of the businessman; the intrinsic capacity to take the wishes and needs of others seriously and to adjust our behaviour accordingly; that instinctive, mechanical, mindless conformity of the American average Joe so derided by the intellectual and sophisticate.’ is downright laughable given the unbroken pattern of predation, spoliation, and corruption that has characterised the American economic system – from slavery in colonial Virginia to Enron and WorldCom today. American capitalism has many virtues, I’ll freely admit, but integrity is not its strong suit. With Harris I’d concede that there are ruthless people out there, and we might be forced to fight them. In talking about ‘the Other’, however, one should be more than aware of how easy it is to project one’s fears and phobias, or how one might indulge himself in ‘fantasy ideology’. To postulate self-righteously that US ‘codes of conduct’ and ‘conscience’ are a sure way through the thicket of our darkest passions is, well – so typically American. The greatest achievement of the U.S. has been its success in transforming a ‘revolutionary vision’ into a workable reality. The political success has spilled over into business and made the country incredibly innovative. America has proved and proves daily that ‘the past has zero value’. Only the future counts. So far they have been alone in this: France, and signally Russia failed, and are now plagued by self-doubt. China might yet succeed, and India might transform its colonial experience into self-reliant strength. But the jury is still out in both cases. Alas, America’s success is also its curse. Having overcome self-doubt, it can no longer contemplate it. The ‘city on the hill’ can do no wrong. For this sin of hubris retributive justice demands that America be forever condemned to try and ‘do the world anew’ in accordance with the latest ‘vision’ – or fear. MCI 20 May 2005 Notes [1] It might be noted in passing that the concept of ‘self-determination’ has been proposed and espoused by the U.S. after both World War I and II against the wishes of the colonial powers (UK and France) or the neo-colonial Soviet Union. [2] Transformative events push the boundary of the conceivable. Before World War I war could not be conceived as the ruthless affair it became. Discovered by chance, ruthlessness became Germany’s deliberate strategy in World War II, followed and egged on by Japan. In other words, they are ‘changes in what is collectively permissible to our imagination. (…) When the unthinkable becomes increasingly thought, it begins to numb those visceral emotions that govern the shame system, and thus the very structure of civilisation that it supports.’ [3] The Swiss peasantry destroyed the Austrian knights by unceremoniously burying them under logs and stones they rolled down a slope on them. At Crecy, the British foot folk unchivalrously cut horses’ heels, and then the throats of the fallen knights. The horse (and black powder) was the basis of Mongolian successful domination of the agrarian and settled societies that defended themselves with human or stone walls. [4] Napoleon is said to have fought ‘without regard to losses’. This is incorrect; he just had bigger reserves of soldiers. By the time he went into Russia his core of French soldiers was much diminished, however. His undoing in Russia in 1812 was in good part due to the fact that he had to rely on his allies, whom he could not trust, as well as unseasoned Frenchmen.
Review by Aldo Matteucci

You may also be interested in

cvr9780743260459_9780743260459_hr.jpg

Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror

All memoirs are incomplete; instant ones even more so; and memoirs about security matters are the worst, in this respect. The book, however, manages to disappoint in an unusual way.

page_1-1.jpg

Culture and Conflict: Challenges for Europe’s Foreign Policy

The text discusses the challenges that Europe's foreign policy faces due to cultural differences and conflicts.

Understanding Iran’s Media Diplomacy

Iran's media diplomacy aims to present the country positively on the global stage. Through state-controlled outlets like Press TV and Al-Alam, Iran shares its perspective on international events, often offering a counter-narrative to Western media. This effort is part of a broader strategy to shape global perceptions of Iran and challenge negative stereotypes. By utilizing media as a tool for diplomacy, Iran seeks to influence public opinion and build alliances with countries sharing similar views.

9780773523982.jpg

Cyber-diplomacy: Managing Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century

Cyber-diplomacy: Managing Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century" discusses the importance of digital diplomacy in modern international relations. It explores how governments can leverage technology to engage with other countries, protect national interests, and navigate cyber threats effectively. This book offers insights into how cyber-diplomacy is reshaping traditional diplomatic practices and the key role it plays in shaping foreign policy in the digital age.

finance.png

Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 1815-1914

The text explores the interplay of finance, trade, and politics in British foreign policy from 1815 to 1914. It discusses how economic factors influenced decision-making and shaped diplomatic relations during this period.

index.jpg

Room For Diplomacy: Britain’s Diplomatic Buildings Overseas 1800-2000

Mark Bertram joined the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works after reading architecture at Cambridge and remained in the civil service as architect, project manager, administrator, estate manager and – in his own words – ‘quasi diplomat’ for the next thirty years. He was the ministry’s regional architect in Hong Kong in the 1970s, moved to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office when it secured control of its own buildings abroad (the ‘diplomatic estate’) in 1983, and was soon head of the estate department. On surrendering that role in 1997, he became a professional adviser to the ...

demilitarization.png

The Demilitarization of American Diplomacy: Two cheers for striped pants

The trenchant contribution to this subject of the outstanding American scholar-diplomat Laurence Pope is published in Palgrave’s ‘Pivot’ series of short books designed to be brought out quickly.

51fbTEnX9cL._SX319_BO1204203200_.jpg

Diplomacy and the American Democracy

The text discusses the connection between diplomacy and American democracy. Diplomacy is essential for promoting American values, interests, and security worldwide. It highlights the importance of diplomacy in advancing democracy, human rights, and peace. Diplomatic efforts help address global challenges and conflicts, contributing to a more stable and prosperous world. Diplomacy is a key tool in shaping international relations and ensuring America's leadership on the global stage. It emphasizes the need for strategic and effective diplomacy in advancing American interests and promoting democr...

umcrest.png

The geopolitics of access to oil resources: The case of Uganda

Ten years ago, Uganda joined other sub-Saharan African Countries with new discoveries of oil; and just as the case always is, this news comes with high prospects for development and economic transformation. These ambitious projections are always based on the success stories of oil money in other countries without prejudice to the fear of the infamous oil curse that results from poor exploitation of oil revenues. With these aspirations at hand, Uganda has clearly stated in its national polices and development plans the fact that the country's development in the next 30 years shall be largely de...

Will WikiLeaks Hobble U.S. Diplomacy?

The message relates to the potential impact of WikiLeaks on U.S. diplomacy.

61NVEVB7CNL.jpg

World on Fire: How Exporting Free-Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability

Markets only function optimally when there is perfect information. Joseph Stiglitz received the Nobel Prize in economics for proving that when there are asymmetries of information markets fail. Information economics, with its better analyses of labour, capital, and product markets, enables the construction of macroeconomic models that provide deeper insights into unemployment, recessions and depressions, and other problems that have marked capitalism since its beginnings.

Modernising-Dutch-Diplomacy.png

Modernising Dutch Diplomacy

The Dutch government is making investments in the modernization of its diplomatic services to enhance its efficiency, effectiveness, and digital capabilities. This upgrade aims to position the Netherlands as a leader in global diplomacy by adapting to the changing international landscape and embracing innovation.

umcrest.png

Exploring the Relevance of Engagement and Containment Approaches in the European Union’s Management of Relations with Russia

Since 2006, Russia has grown more assertive and even hawkish in its approach to the European Union (EU), even seen as attempting to divide the large EU membership so as to consolidate its influence in Europe.

71NamHq2V8L.jpg

Years of Upheaval

The text discusses the challenges and changes experienced over several years.

German Strategy for International Digital Policy

The German government's Strategy for International Digital Policy outlines their commitment to safeguarding democracy and freedom online, promoting human rights, advocating for a global, open, free, and secure internet, enhancing technology partnerships, supporting cross-border data flows, shaping international standards, ensuring sustainable and resilient digital societies, and utilizing digitalization to address global challenges. This strategy aligns with various policy goals and emphasizes the importance of cooperation at global, regional, and national levels to advance digital governance,...

51t2H0Z52kL._SY291_BO1204203200_QL40_FMwebp_.webp

Honey & Vinegar: Incentives, Sanctions & Foreign Policy

Buttressed by input from scholars, diplomats, and observers with an intimate knowledge of U.S. foreign policy, Honey and Vinegar examines "engagement"—strategies that primarily involve the use of positive incentives.

Obama-Clinton-Benghazi-.jpg

A weak diplomatic hybrid: U.S. Special Mission Benghazi, 2011-12

In the widespread coverage of the brutal murder of US Ambassador to Libya Christopher Stevens and others in the US mission in Benghazi on 11 September 2012, there has been much confusion over the character of the post. It has been repeatedly described in the media as the American ‘consulate’ but the official position, recently stated emphatically by the Report of the Accountability Review Board for Benghazi (ARB) convened by secretary of state Hillary Clinton, is that ‘the U.S. Special Mission in Benghazi was never a consulate and never formally notified [in any character] to the Libyan ...

A Digital DFAT: Joining the 21st Century

The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) needs to keep pace with technological advancements that could increase efficiency, improve internal and external communication, and facilitate information exchange and gathering. Without e-diplomacy DFAT will be cut off from important audiences and find it increasingly hard to communicate its messages and coordinate Australian foreign policy across government.

download.gif

Economic coercion as an instrument of foreign policy: US economic measures against Cuba and the Dominican Republic

The text discusses how the United States has used economic coercion as a foreign policy tool against Cuba and the Dominican Republic.

review_of-international-studies.jpg

Health, security and foreign policy

Over the past decade, health has become an increasingly important international issue and one which has engaged the attention of the foreign and security policy community. This article examines the emerging relationship between foreign and security policy, and global public health. It argues that the agenda has been dominated by two issues – the spread of selected infectious diseases (including HIV/AIDS) and bio-terror. It argues that this is a narrow framing of the agenda which could be broadened to include a wider range of issues. We offer two examples: health and internal instability,...

41zRctUGdxL._SX302_BO1204203200_.jpg

South Africa, the Colonial Powers and ‘African Defence’: The rise and fall of the white entente, 1948-60

This book describes the fate of South Africa's drive, which began in 1949, to associate itself with Britain, France, Portugal and Belgium in an African Defence Pact. It describes how South Africa had to settle for an entente rather than an alliance, and how even this had been greatly emasculated by 1960. In light of this case, the book considers the argument that ententes have the advantages of alliances without their disadvantages, and concludes that this is exaggerated.

umcrest.png

Digital Diplomacy as a foreign policy statecraft to achieving regional cooperation and integration in the Polynesian Leaders Group

Established in 2011, the Polynesian Leaders Groups serves to fulfill a vision of cooperation, strengthening integration on issues pertinent to the region and to the future of the PLG. Its nine – American Samoa, French Polynesia, Niue, Cook Islands, Tokelau, Tuvalu, Tonga and Wallis Futuna, is argued to have strength in numbers, resources and diversity, and a positive addition to the growing regional diplomacies in the South Pacific.

Active-Diplomacy-for-a-Changing-World-The-UKs-International-Priorities.png

Active Diplomacy for a Changing World: The UK’s International Priorities

The UK's international priorities focus on active diplomacy in a changing world, emphasizing the importance of global engagement and cooperation to address challenges effectively.

41BT7K5YCKL._SX334_BO1204203200_.jpg

Hanging In There: The G7 and G8 Summit in Maturity and Renewal

The G7 and G8 summits have evolved over time, transitioning from a focus on economic issues to a broader range of global challenges. Despite criticism, they remain relevant due to their ability to adapt and address current issues like climate change and cybersecurity. The summits have provided a platform for dialogue and cooperation among world leaders, underscoring the importance of multilateralism in today's interconnected world.

31k6k2lkoL._SX331_BO1204203200_.jpg

Economic Statecraft

The text is about economic statecraft.

g_r_berridge.jpg

Britain and Southern Africa

The text discusses Britain’s historical involvement in Southern Africa, highlighting colonisation, the impact of British rule, and the legacy of this relationship.

41x-kTHQo2L._SX331_BO1204203200_.jpg

Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations

The text discusses the emergence of diplomatic relationships during the Amarna period, highlighting how this era marked the start of international relations.

NAMIBIA.png

Namibia’s Digital Foreign Policy and Diplomacy (Briefing Paper #3)

This briefing paper emerged from Diplo's participation in Namibia's Foreign Policy Review Conference (July 2016). In this paper, Dr Katharina E. Höne suggests a three-pronged approach to Namibia's digital foreign policy and diplomacy, and looks at the discourse on information and communications technology (ICT) and development.

notes.png

The Permanent Under-Secretary of State: A brief history of the office and its holders

As the title of this booklet indicates, it is only a brief history of this increasingly influential office in the British Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Nevertheless, as one would expect from its provenance, it is completely authoritative, fluently written, draws on previously under-exploited archives, and includes many nineteenth century photographs never previously published.

Laurent-Goetschel.jpg

Small States and the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) of the EU: A Comparative Analysis

The text discusses the role of small states in the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) of the European Union, comparing their strategies and challenges.

ModernDiplomacy.jpeg

The Yugoslav diplomatic service under sanctions

Sanctions adversely affect all the structures of the state and society, and render difficult, if not impossible, the normal operation of services, including the Foreign Service.This paper discusses the challenges faced by the Yugoslav diplomatic service when the country was under sanction.

51t-kF8KkIL._SX329_BO1204203200_.jpg

Experiences of China

The writer shares their experiences in China, including cultural immersion, language challenges, local cuisine exploration, and building friendships. They express admiration for the country's beauty and history, emphasizing the transformative impact of living abroad.

s-l500.jpg

True Brits: Inside the Foreign Office

True Brits: Inside the Foreign Office" offers an in-depth look into the workings of the British Foreign Office, shedding light on the complexities of international relations and diplomacy.

51-jwtkDQ-L._SY344_BO1204203200_.jpg

21st century health diplomacy: A new relationship between foreign policy and health

The 21st century sees a shift towards the integration of foreign policy and health, emphasizing the importance of health diplomacy in global affairs.

coverimage.jpg

Singapore’s Diplomacy: Vulnerability into Strength

Singapore is a practitioner of focused, innovative diplomacy, constantly in search of the political space for itself that would overcome its sense of vulnerability resulting from its geopolitical location.

Nixons-Trip-to-China.gif

Nixon’s Trip to China

Nixon's historic trip to China in 1972 marked a significant shift in international relations. This visit helped to normalize diplomatic ties between the United States and China, as well as pave the way for future cooperation and collaboration between the two countries. It was a groundbreaking moment that showcased the power of political diplomacy in fostering positive relationships between nations.

41-MoYhl-1L._SX351_BO1204203200_.jpg

Ellsworth Bunker: Global Troubleshooter, Vietnam Hawk

The message focuses on the life and career of Ellsworth Bunker, depicting him as a global troubleshooter and a Vietnam Hawk.

5183RUhw4ML.jpg

Kosovo Crossing: American Ideals meet Reality on the Balkan Battlefields

The author of this review compares Noam Chomsky's A New Generation Draws the Line: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West and David Fromkin's Kosovo Crossing: American Ideals meet Reality on the Balkan Battlefields.

811L1p1222L.jpg

The New Mandarins: How British foreign policy works

The message delves into how British foreign policy operates, examining the role of the "new mandarins" in shaping decisions and strategies.

31RR0SAhJuL._SX331_BO1204203200_.jpg

Diplomacy and Developing Nations: Post-Cold War foreign policy-making structures and processes

The text discusses how post-Cold War foreign policy-making structures and processes impact diplomacy with developing nations.

thumbs_b_c_5aebeaf05dd939ca229332db7810018b.jpg

Public Diplomacy in the Middle East: A Comparative Analysis of the U.S. and Iran

The message provides a comparative analysis of public diplomacy strategies employed by the United States and Iran in the Middle East.

978-1-4614-5401-4.jpg

Global health diplomacy: How foreign policy can influence health

Ilona Kickbusch argues that public health experts need to work with diplomats in order to achieve global health goals.

6174Uxi3UFS.jpg

The Embassy: A story of war and diplomacy

This book tells the story of the vital role played by the US Embassy in Monrovia in helping to mediate an end to the brutal, 14-year civil war in Liberia in 2003.

eu-2018.png

European Union external action structure: Beyond state and intergovernmental organisations diplomacy

This dissertation analyses the organisation of the external action structures of the European Union. As an international actor which is beyond a state, but also different to traditional international organisations, the EU has created a “diplomatic constellation” in which diplomacy from member states is not substituted but complemented by EU external action.

who.png

Oslo Ministerial Declaration – global health: a pressing foreign policy issue of our time

The Oslo Ministerial Declaration emphasizes the critical nature of global health as a pressing foreign policy concern.

1.cover-source-1.jpg

Global health diplomacy: Advancing foreign policy and global health interests

Attention to global health diplomacy has been rising but the future holds challenges, including a difficult budgetary environment. Going forward, both global health and foreign policy practitioners would benefit from working more closely together to achieve greater mutual understanding and to advance respective mutual goals.

51z2IvdbqiL.jpg

Unvanquished: A U.S.-U.N. Saga

In November 1996, the U.S. wielded its veto power in the U.N. Security Council to prevent Boutros Boutros-Ghali from securing a second term as Secretary-General, despite overwhelming support. The U.S. had attempted various tactics, including disinformation and pressure on other council members, to oust him. Boutros-Ghali's memoir sheds light on the U.S.'s dismissal of diplomacy in this instance, emphasizing the power dynamics at play. The event underscored the potential weakening of the U.N. diplomatic system.

Diplomacy and domestic politics: The logic of two-level games

The text discusses the concept of two-level games, which examines how international negotiations are influenced by both domestic and international factors. Diplomats must navigate these complexities to reach agreements that satisfy both international partners and domestic constituencies, balancing the demands of two levels of negotiation.

51NyxzqJ1WL._SY291_BO1204203200_QL40_FMwebp_.webp

Digital diplomacy: Conversations on Innovations in Foreign Policy

The text discusses the role of digital diplomacy in shaping innovative foreign policy strategies.

lowy.png

Australia’s Diplomatic Deficit: Reinvesting in Our Instruments of International Policy

The text discusses the importance of Australia re-investing in its instruments of international policy to address its diplomatic deficit.

Japans-Middle-Power-Diplomacy-event-tile.png

Japanese middle-power diplomacy

In the realm of international relations, Japan engages in middle-power diplomacy, showcasing its influence and capabilities while fostering beneficial relationships on the global stage.

chinese.png

Chinese Ambassadors: The rise of diplomatic professionalism since 1945

Xiaohong worked on Western European affairs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Beijing from 1977 until 1989. At some point after this she entered the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University in the United States, and in 1997 was awarded a Ph.D. This book is her doctoral thesis, and - on the whole - a very good one it is. Chinese Ambassadors is based on many interviews with former diplomats and a variety of Chinese primary sources (including memoirs), and is clear, well organized, and - in its main thrust - tightly argued. As a result, it offers a rare insight int...

coverimage.jpg

US Public Diplomacy: A Cold War Success Story?

The post-'9/11' revival of interest in US public diplomacy encompasses a wide variety of opinions, all overwhelmingly critical.

umcrest.png

Impact of Russia’s Foreign Energy Policy on Small European States’ Security. Case Study: The Baltic States

Russia is the main energy supplier for Europe and Europe is the biggest market for Russian energy sources. This interdependency is the main cause for complicated energy relations between the EU, that is struggling to merge divergent interests of its 27 unequal members on one side, and Russia, that has gained new confidence in its energy power, on the other.

page_1-3.jpg

On the importance and essence of foreign cultural policy of states

Foreign cultural policy is in itself vital for establishing long lasting and deep relations between countries in international intercourse. But what we should equally bear in mind is that it is important to preserve the variety and the diversity of cultures in our efforts to bring about global cultural  communication. Uniform culture is not culture and cannot be communicated.

umcrest.png

A clash of grand strategies between Russia, United States of America and Turkey for greater power and influence in the Middle East

The thesis explores the changing dynamics in the Middle East where the region is witnessing a metamorphosis in its power structure as major regional powers actively pursue their grand strategies to unseat U.S. hegemony. The analysis focuses in particular on the foreign policies of the revisionist powers of Russia and Turkey collaborating in all spheres of statecraft against the resoluteness of the U.S. to maintain the status quo. It recognises that the Syrian civil war has disrupted the equilibrium of the prevailing power structure which, by extension, has provided the enabling environment for...

global_south.png

The Foreign Policies of the Global South: Rethinking Conceptual Frameworks

The text provides an analysis of foreign policies in the Global South and suggests reconsidering existing conceptual frameworks.

U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East – The Early Cold War Version

The text discusses the use of U.S. propaganda in the Middle East during the early Cold War era.

umcrest.png

Palestinian statehood diplomacy: The Palestinian UN bids of 2011-2012

The Palestinian Authority (PA) launched an intense diplomatic campaign to garner a supporting vote in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), which was finally realized in 2012 by an upgrade to a 'non member observer state', granting Palestine a set of new privileges. It represents a victory for Palestinian diplomacy and presents a model of statehood diplomacy that received support as much as criticism. It stirred discussions about statehood and state recognition, and exposed the limited success of international interventions in post-conflict state building efforts.

51DFjdXfawL.jpg

Diplomacy for a Crowded World

The message emphasizes the importance of diplomacy in a world facing increasing population growth and competition for resources. Diplomacy is portrayed as a crucial tool for navigating the complexities of a crowded world, fostering cooperation, and finding peaceful solutions to global challenges.

umcrest.png

The Role of Religion in Shaping Saudi Arabia’s Foreign Policy Towards Sub Saharan Africa: A Case Study of Uganda

Cultural and geographical proximity between Saudi Arabia and Sub-Sahara African region makes the relations between the two sides an interesting and wanting area of study. It was against this backdrop that this researcher decided to investigate into this important area.

Major country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics

On July 30, Xi Jinping oversaw a meeting of the Politburo to discuss economic reform, ahead of the widely-anticipated discussions at Beidaihe leading up to the release of a new economic reform package at the Third Plenum in October (Xinhua, July 30). The official press provides no further detail about the meeting, but Premier Li Keqiang has described the center’s economic priorities at great length in recent months. Meanwhile, Xi has been busy consolidating power, gaining hold of what appears to be an unusually strong grasp of the party’s central apparatus. It remains unclear, howev...

coolben-200x225-1.jpg

Frontline Diplomacy: The U.S. Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection on CD-ROM

The ADST is a private, non-profit organization whose mission is ‘to spread knowledge about the practice and history of modern American diplomacy’. To this end, its Oral History Project, created in 1985 under the direction of former Consul-General Stuart Kennedy, has devoted considerable resources to conducting, recording, and editing interviews with retired members of the US Foreign Service, among others.

Seal_of_U.S._Department_of_State_Diplomatic_Security.svg_.png

Tested in Times of Transition

The message focuses on navigating challenges during periods of change.

kosovo_new_generation.png

A New Generation Draws the Line: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West

Note: The author of this review compares Noam Chomsky's A New Generation Draws the Line: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West and David Fromkin's Kosovo Crossing: American Ideals meet Reality on the Balkan Battlefields.

41PHN1ZGDFL.jpg

Making Foreign Policy: A Certain Idea of Britain

In the course of his distinguished diplomatic career Sir John Coles worked in the Cabinet Office and was Private Secretary to the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. At the time of his retirement in 1997 he was concluding over three years as Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign Office. His views on the problems now faced by British foreign policy-making and what might be done to correct them, which it is the main object of this book to present, thus demand close attention.

Jonas_Gahr_Store_undated.jpg

Global Health and the Foreign Policy Agenda

Global health initiatives are a vital component of foreign policy. Efforts to address healthcare challenges worldwide can improve international relations and promote stability. Investments in global health can yield benefits for both public health and diplomatic relations, demonstrating a commitment to global cooperation and solidarity. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, prioritizing global health in foreign policy agendas is crucial for fostering a safer and more prosperous global community.

Tech-Diplomacy-Practice-in-the-San-Francisco-Bay-Area-pages-1.jpg

Tech diplomacy practice in the San Francisco Bay Area

A fresh look five years after the first mapping in 2018, this report examines how countries engage in tech diplomacy in the San Francisco Bay Area. The report maps a selection of diplomatic representations to illustrate the variety of approaches engaged and identifies both the benefits and challenges for countries and tech companies in pursuing the practice of tech diplomacy.

Will Shashi Tharoor’s Recommendations Reform the MEA for the Better?

The text is about Shashi Tharoor's proposed reforms for India's Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) and the impact it could have.

umcrest.png

The Imperial Component in Iran’s Foreign Policy: Towards Arab Mashreq and Arab Gulf States

One of the most important developments the Middle East has witnessed in the 20th centaury was the success of the Iranian revolution of Islamist ideology, with ambitions to control.

umcrest.png

The United Nations and Israel

This dissertation studies the relationship between the United Nations and Israel. Similar to most relationships, the one under review keeps evolving due to changing internal realities and emerging external factors.

surrender-is-not-an-option-9781416552857_hr.jpg

Surrender is Not an Option: Defending America at the United Nations and Abroad

In the book "Surrender is Not an Option: Defending America at the United Nations and Abroad," the author emphasizes the importance of standing firm in defense of America's interests, explaining that surrender should never be considered as a viable option in international relations. The book likely offers insights into strategies for navigating diplomatic challenges while maintaining a strong stance on key issues.

ModernDiplomacy.jpeg

Current developments in South African diplomacy

As the new South Africa adapts to an ever-changing regional, continental and global environment, this paper reviews current developments against the background of the historic situation and of the evolution of diplomacy world-wide.

The Death of Ambassador Chris Stevens, the Need for ‘Expeditionary Diplomacy,’ and the Real Lessons for U.S. Diplomacy

The text discusses the death of Ambassador Chris Stevens, emphasizes the necessity of "Expeditionary Diplomacy," and highlights key lessons for U.S. diplomacy.

9780415692038.jpg

Transformational Diplomacy after the Cold War: Britain’s Know How Fund in Post-Communist Europe, 1989-2003

This is the long awaited history of the Know How Fund (KHF) produced by the recently retired Foreign and Commonwealth Office historian Keith Hamilton. Like other FCO ‘internal histories’, it was initially written ‘to provide background information for members of the FCO, to point out possible lessons for the future and evaluate how well objectives were met.’

1559241540702.jpg

Message on Switzerland’s International Cooperation in 2013-2016

The text discusses Switzerland's international cooperation activities from 2013 to 2016.

A-World-to-Gain.png

A World to Gain: A New Agenda for Aid, Trade and Investment

A World to Gain: A New Agenda for Aid, Trade and Investment" outlines a comprehensive approach to global development through aid, trade, and investment. It suggests strategies to address economic disparities and foster sustainable growth worldwide. The book advocates for collaboration between countries and institutions to tackle challenges and unlock opportunities for progress on a global scale.

Cover_The_emergence_of_digital_foreign_policy-copy.png

2021: The emergence of digital foreign policy

While digital tools, in particular social media, have been gradually introduced to the practice of diplomacy, many open questions remain regarding the impact of digitisation on foreign policy and the environment in which diplomacy is practised. This is where digital foreign policy becomes important. The report is available for download. The summary and recordings of the online conference 2021: The emergence of digital foreign policy are also available.

The British Interests Section in Kampala, 1976-7

The message below provides an overview of the activities and challenges faced by the British Interests Section in Kampala between 1976 and 1977.

diplomatic-interference-and-the-law.png

Diplomatic Interference and the Law

Q: ‘Why will there never be a coup d’état in Washington? A: Because there’s no American Embassy there.’ This old joke serves to highlight the belief – entrenched deeply in poor, weak states – that diplomatic missions too often meddle in the ‘internal’ or ‘domestic’ affairs of the countries in which they are located, sometimes with dramatic consequences. It is a view that was held in the years following the Second World War by the former Yugoslavia, then struggling to extricate itself from the Soviet orbit, and prompted it to press successfully for the codification of dipl...

81hMbU78KnL.jpg

Civilisation and its Enemies: The Next Stage of History

Lee Harris is not an academic – his name would hardly be quoted in obscure learned journals. In the aftermath of 9/11 he has written this book in an attempt to articulate and argue a position that justifies (both retaliatory and precautionary) military intervention while rejecting racism or fundamentalism. A ‘loner’ who shares many ideas with the Straussian school (but without the latter’s undertone of righteous victim), Harris may be giving voice to the worldview underpinning much current U.S. action in international political affairs. He is worth engaging.

Carne_Ross_Independent_Diplomat.jpg

Secret, lies and diplomats

The text discusses confidential conversations between diplomats including secrets and falsehoods.

Tailor your subscription to your interests, from updates on the dynamic world of digital diplomacy to the latest trends in AI.

Subscribe to more Diplo and Geneva Internet Platform newsletters!