Yellow banner with pen and letters

Author: Geoff Berridge

Room For Diplomacy: Britain’s Diplomatic Buildings Overseas 1800-2000

2017

Mark Bertram joined the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works after reading architecture at Cambridge and remained in the civil service as architect, project manager, administrator, estate manager and – in his own words – ‘quasi diplomat’ for the next thirty years. He was the ministry’s regional architect in Hong Kong in the 1970s, moved to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office when it secured control of its own buildings abroad (the ‘diplomatic estate’) in 1983, and was soon head of the estate department. On surrendering that role in 1997, he became a professional adviser to the FCO. He is therefore exceptionally well qualified to have written a book of this nature.
index.jpg

The structure of his work, which has 20 chapters, is a good blend of the thematic with the chronological: for example, ‘Chapter 4: Consulates 1850-1900’ and ‘Chapter 5: Legation Houses 1850-1900’; and, ‘Chapter 13: New Commonwealth 1947-1983’ and ‘Chapter 14: Roles, Rules and Rations 1950-1970’. Its greater part consists of detailed descriptions of building types and individual buildings during different periods, together with accounts of the debates their planning prompted at home, some of them acrimonious. Interleaving most chapters, however, are illuminating discussions of the general questions prompted by the subject, and it is these that I found particularly interesting.

The first among these questions to mention because it helps to understand the others, even though it will probably be the one of least interest to students of diplomacy, is where in the government machine overall responsibility for the diplomatic estate should lie. In Britain, this rested from 1824 until 1983 with an already long-established government department responsible for all of central government’s public works (e.g. the British Museum), among which, therefore, the diplomatic estate was only one part; after the 1870s, the Foreign Office did not even have a budget allocation for the overseas estate for the forthcoming year. For most of this period the ministry with overall responsibility for diplomatic buildings abroad was known as the Office of Works, latterly as the Ministry of Works, then the Property Services Agency (PSA). It had its own architects, quantity surveyors, structural engineers, project managers, and so on. In 1983, this all changed when both the responsibility and the money were given to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office; accordingly, the title of the penultimate chapter of Bertram’s book is ‘Diplomats in Control’, with charge of 4067 properties in 132 countries. The question is: Was this a good thing? The PSA thought that the diplomats would give insufficient attention to long-term value for money, while the diplomats believed that only they were able to give the right priority to the estate as ‘a tool of British diplomacy’ (p. 403) – and henceforward would be in a position to do so, while being determined to make it cost-effective. Provided a foreign ministry is held to account by a well-qualified select committee of a parliamentary assembly, I am sure that the author is right to support the diplomats’ view.

The second general question is how to acquire and hold property. Initially, envoys and consuls had to find and rent their own, in the last case sometimes – notably in nineteenth century China – even boats moored offshore. Subsequently, governments such as that of Britain assumed the responsibility but were then faced with the choice of whether to lease or purchase existing properties of promise – or build their own. Britain took its first steps in the last direction in the early nineteenth century. Bertram examines, too, a variant on leasehold that began to be exploited by the British in the early twentieth century in cities with ‘relatively sophisticated property expertise (p. 227).’ This was the ‘developer deal’, in which a developer agreed to provide an acceptable site and erect on it a building to an approved plan; in return, the government signed up to rent it for a fixed term of years, usually a long one. The British consulate-general building in Jakarta was erected on this basis at the beginning of the 1930s and continued to be leased by the government until 1981. The advantages and disadvantages of the various options in different circumstances are thoroughly considered.

The third question to arise when the government began to build embassies and consulates was how to design them. When the first resident embassies were established in the early modern period ambassadors and their companions (official and unofficial) lived and worked together in one house. In the British case, Bertram tells us, the growing demand for office space consequent upon the expansion in diplomatic responsibilities following the First World War led to a feeling in London that embassy offices should be lodged separately from the ambassador’s house: the offices (henceforward ‘the embassy’) in the business centre and the ambassador’s living accommodation and ‘machine for entertaining’ (henceforward ‘the residence’) in the cheaper and more spacious suburbs, with the corollary that separate accommodation also had to be offered to the other diplomatic staff. But to the extent that this change came fully to pass after the Second World War it was not accepted without stiff resistance by the senior diplomats, who argued that the old design was more efficient as well as more convenient and that, besides, civil servants in London did not grasp the prestige attached to having one large building in a city centre. A downside to the separation of embassy from ambassadorial residence felt more strongly in London was that it ‘opened the way for more individualistic and transient enthusiasms to flourish on the part of incumbents’ in regard not just to furnishings of the residence but also to modifications to existing buildings and plans for any replacement. ‘The scope for altercations [with London],’ writes the author with feeling, ‘was endless’ (p. 326). Not least because incumbent ambassadors were likely to have left their residence for a new one before any major building works were completed and their successors might possibly have quite different ideas, London’s tolerance for their views had to be strictly limited.

Another question of design that caused tension was the extent to which the operational requirements of a new building should be moulded by stylistic considerations, whether with a view to making it blend into the local milieu or – more usually – project a desired image of the sending state. A related question was whether or not commissions should be awarded to high-profile private architects, who would probably be more difficult to control than those in government employ but might be expected to produce eye-catching results. Style did not begin to become a significant consideration until the late 1950s, when architectural anathemas were heaped on the ‘straight blocks’ to which the Ministry of Works had given birth after the Second World War. At this juncture, private architects were commissioned to design diplomatic buildings for the first time since, exceptionally, the famous Sir Edwin Lutyens had been employed to design the new embassy and residence in Washington, completed in 1930. But the experience of the Ministry of Works with the three projects concerned was not, says Bertram, a good one. Neither the new residence at Lagos by Lionel Brett, occupied in 1961, nor Basil Spence’s Rome Embassy, opened ten years later, were judged to have been operationally ideal by their occupants, and the design for a new embassy and residence at Brasilia by Peter and Alison Smithson was abandoned after a three-year struggle, in part because it was too ambitious and could not be afforded. Henceforward, the government took more care to appoint in-house architects with good track records, better match the professional strengths of private architects to the challenges of each project when commissioning, and tighten up project management.

A further question of design that caused difficulties for traditional reflexes as its importance increased in the last quarter of the twentieth century was how to modify existing buildings or build new ones with physical defence in mind: the question of what is now usually called ‘diplomatic security’. Unfortunately, although understandably, British practice in regard to the defence of diplomatic buildings against attack by terrorists or politically agitated mobs is a subject on which Mark Bertram is noticeably reticent. Nevertheless, here and there his book contains interesting asides on it. He says, for example, that the post-Second World War decision to build residences separately from embassies was later reinforced for reasons of security (p. 358), although he does not say why. Presumably this was chiefly to reduce the likelihood of harm falling to ambassadors and their families by virtue of living in buildings that not only needed to be open to the public but were also correctly assumed to be ‘nests of spies’. (This was a major reason for the notorious attack on and occupation of the American Embassy in Tehran in November 1979.)  He also mentions the security advantages of compounds in the Middle East and Asia, which ‘derived from the military cantonments of India’, and reminds us that they were also prompted with a view to providing a ‘healthy, communal, uncrowded, fairly self-sufficient living and working environment’ (pp. 87, 335) – points I had omitted to mention in my article ‘Diplomatic security and the birth of the compound system’ . He mentions more than once that secure or ‘classified’ offices were always placed on the top floor of buildings (p. 314), which is well-known. Further, during the Cold War, such very limited work as had to be done on British missions in Warsaw Pact countries was done by security-cleared personnel from the UK and all materials were UK-sourced and delivered by diplomatic bag (p. 258). And he gives a brief mention of the FCO’s 1985 security review, which ‘made proposals for relocating some [buildings in unsafe environments] and strengthening the defences of others in respect of site perimeters, gates and barriers, and glazing’ (p. 418). But that – apart from the account of the building of the new embassy in Moscow, opened in 2000, where measures designed to prevent electronic eavesdropping were the main security concern – is it as far as this subject is concerned.

With the reservations that there is – albeit understandably – too little on security and perhaps too much on the careers of individuals, Mark Bertram has written a book on his subject of unrivalled authority and with great clarity. Occasionally, too, a droll sense of humour shines through his text (‘It is an illusion to imagine that bureaucracy lessened in time of war: it just used smaller sheets of thinner paper’, pp. 232-3). The author is at ease with the diplomatic lexicon and provides just the right amount of political context. The book is also carefully sourced, with many references to documents located in The National Archives in London; and it has innumerable illustrations, a bibliography, and good analytical index. It is also supplemented by full descriptions and illustrations in a ‘Catalogue of British embassy and consulate buildings, 1800 – 2010’ on the web which is freely available here. Room for Diplomacy is unique in accounts of British diplomacy and I cannot recommend it too strongly. The author’s publisher, Spire Books was dissolved in 2016, but it can still be obtained, most cheaply directly from the author via this page.
Review by  G.R. Berridge

You may also be interested in

A Digital DFAT: Joining the 21st Century

The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) needs to keep pace with technological advancements that could increase efficiency, improve internal and external communication, and facilitate information exchange and gathering. Without e-diplomacy DFAT will be cut off from important audiences and find it increasingly hard to communicate its messages and coordinate Australian foreign policy across government.

book-twitter.jpg

Twitter for Diplomats

Twitter for Diplomats is not a manual, or a list of what to do or not to do. It is rather a collection of information, anecdotes, and experiences. It recounts a few episodes involving foreign ministers and ambassadors, as well as their ways of interacting with the tool and exploring its great potential. It wants to inspire ambassadors and diplomats to open and nurture their accounts – and it wants to inspire all of us to use Twitter to also listen and open our minds.

clingendael-2018.png

Visa Denial Diplomacy

The text discusses how diplomats can use visa denials as a diplomatic tool to express dissatisfaction or send a message to another country. It highlights that while visa denials can strain relations, they can also be a strategic way to convey disapproval or communicate diplomatic signals. Diplomats may utilize this tactic to convey a variety of messages to other nations, influencing their behavior or actions through the denial of visas.

1516809348515.jpg

Connectivity and networks rule: Virtuality, public diplomacy and the foreign ministry

The text discusses the impact of connectivity and networks on public diplomacy and foreign ministries, emphasizing the importance of virtual communication in today's world.

Foreign Ministries in Developing Countries and Emerging Markets

The text discusses the importance of foreign ministries in developing countries and emerging markets. It highlights the key role these ministries play in promoting economic development, attracting foreign investment, and fostering international relations. Additionally, it emphasizes the significance of effective diplomacy and strategic communication for these nations to navigate global challenges and opportunities successfully.

Modernising-Dutch-Diplomacy.png

Modernising Dutch Diplomacy

The Dutch government is making investments in the modernization of its diplomatic services to enhance its efficiency, effectiveness, and digital capabilities. This upgrade aims to position the Netherlands as a leader in global diplomacy by adapting to the changing international landscape and embracing innovation.

s-l500.jpg

True Brits: Inside the Foreign Office

True Brits: Inside the Foreign Office" offers an in-depth look into the workings of the British Foreign Office, shedding light on the complexities of international relations and diplomacy.

kd.png

Foreign ministries and the management of the past

In his paper, Keith Hamilton looks at Foreign Ministries’ treatment of historical diplomacy, and specifically, the publication of diplomatic documents. Through his historical analyses, the author examines the various aims of these documents, such as, to shed light on past developments and help in current and future negotiations; to influence parliamentarians and a wider public; and to further international relations’ studies.

book-asian.jpg

Asian Diplomacy: The Foreign Ministries of China, India, Japan, Singapore and Thailand

Based on eight years of research and interviews with over 160 professional diplomats and others, this book offers a range of information on the structures, operation and the working style of the foreign ministries of five key countries in Asia: China, India, Japan, Singapore and Thailand. The rise of Asia adds salience to this book, since it has become more important than ever before to understand the dynamics of the foreign policy process in these countries.

page_1-2-1.jpg

Reflections on multistakeholder diplomacy

Through analysis of the procedural and institutional arrangements in the functioning of international bodies, Valentin Katrandjiev, seeks to measure the extent to which diplomats accept nonofficial networks and entities as equal partners in the diplomatic negotiation process. Katrandjiev analyses the trend that on the domestic front, societies demand greater public accountability of governments in the process of national foreign policy making. He attempts to do so through the organisational units in MFAs responsible for relationships with domestic stakeholders.

book-persuasion.jpg

Persuasion, the Essence of Diplomacy

This journey through persuasion in diplomacy was initiated by Professor Kappeler’s long experience in both practicing diplomacy and in training diplomats.

notes.png

The Permanent Under-Secretary of State: A brief history of the office and its holders

As the title of this booklet indicates, it is only a brief history of this increasingly influential office in the British Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Nevertheless, as one would expect from its provenance, it is completely authoritative, fluently written, draws on previously under-exploited archives, and includes many nineteenth century photographs never previously published.

510GD2UiZL._SX356_BO1204203200_.jpg

Inside the U.S. Embassy: How the Foreign Service Works for America

The U.S. Embassy and Foreign Service play essential roles in representing America's interests abroad and fostering diplomacy. The Foreign Service officers work diligently to promote American values, protect U.S. citizens, and advance global partnerships. Through collaboration with local governments and international organizations, they address complex challenges and work towards peaceful resolutions. The embassy serves as a hub for diplomatic efforts, supporting American citizens, businesses, and promoting cultural exchange. The Foreign Service's commitment to diplomacy, security, and humanita...

978-94-015-0937-4.jpg

The Diplomatic Kidnappings: A Revolutionary Tactic of Urban Terrorism

The article discusses how diplomatic kidnappings have become a tactic of urban terrorism within revolutions, targeting diplomats to exert pressure on governments. Diplomats are seen as valuable assets by their home countries, making their abduction a powerful tool to achieve political objectives.

Active-Diplomacy-for-a-Changing-World-The-UKs-International-Priorities.png

Active Diplomacy for a Changing World: The UK’s International Priorities

The UK's international priorities focus on active diplomacy in a changing world, emphasizing the importance of global engagement and cooperation to address challenges effectively.

41wz-0hXeqL._SX218_BO1204203200_QL40_ML2_.jpg

The Foreign Office

This book contains a comprehensive description of the British Foreign Office and the Foreign Service since the important Eden reforms of 1943.

31RR0SAhJuL._SX331_BO1204203200_.jpg

Diplomacy and Developing Nations: Post-Cold War foreign policy-making structures and processes

The text discusses how post-Cold War foreign policy-making structures and processes impact diplomacy with developing nations.

ModernDiplomacy.jpeg

The Internet and diplomats of the 20th century

The Internet and diplomats of the twenty century: how new information technologies affect the ordinary work of diplomats.

811L1p1222L.jpg

The New Mandarins: How British foreign policy works

The message delves into how British foreign policy operates, examining the role of the "new mandarins" in shaping decisions and strategies.

page_1-3.jpg

Diplomatic culture and its domestic context

Is there a specific, distinctive diplomatic culture? Given the fact that the conduct of diplomacy is regulated by international law and by custom, and since the structures through which states conduct their external relations, both bilateral and multilateral, are standardized, it is fair to say that both the institutions and the process form a pattern of their own, unique to this profession. The professional diplomatist actors on the international stage, and their institutions, display certain shared characteristics.

coverimage.jpg

Singapore’s Diplomacy: Vulnerability into Strength

Singapore is a practitioner of focused, innovative diplomacy, constantly in search of the political space for itself that would overcome its sense of vulnerability resulting from its geopolitical location.

Foreign-Ministries-in-the-European-Union.jpg

Foreign Ministries in the European Union

Foreign Ministries in the European Union collaborate on a range of global issues, focusing on effective diplomacy, promoting human rights, and fostering peace and security. Regular meetings and coordinated efforts help countries in the EU amplify their impact on the international stage. By working together, they aim to address challenges such as climate change, terrorism, and conflicts around the world. These foreign ministries play a crucial role in shaping EU policies and strategies while representing the collective interests of member states.

ModernDiplomacy.jpeg

The role of the legal adviser in modern diplomatic services

The role of the legal adviser in modern diplomatic services. This paper discusses the role of the legal adviser in modern diplomacy services and the efforts that must go into preserving all possibilities, meagre as they may be, to raise his voice and keep making efforts which eventually could lead in the right direction.

jk.png

Knowledge management and diplomatic training – new approaches for training institutions

Dietrich Kappeler analyses the new approaches for training institutions in knowledge management and diplomatic training, departing from the premise that a distinction is important between personal characteristics and qualities of the diplomat on one hand, and the knowledge and skills he needs to do his job on the other.

41VgorjHN0S._SX325_BO1204203200_.jpg

Inside Diplomacy

This is a book on diplomacy in general and the Indian Foreign Service (IFS) in particular. It is also a gem, and a large gem. It breathes life, wisdom, and good humour, and is full of rich detail. I found it thoroughly absorbing. Students of diplomacy at all stages of their careers will find it immensely useful, while those in a position to influence the future shape of the IFS will discover a whole raft of constructive suggestions for reform fearlessly advanced.

kishan_2004.png

Performance Management in Foreign Ministries: Corporate Techniques in the Diplomatic Service

The text discusses the implementation of corporate performance management techniques within foreign ministries to improve efficiency and effectiveness in diplomatic services.

4145XFCVKML._SY291_BO1204203200_QL40_ML2_.jpg

The Times Survey of Foreign Ministries of the World

The Times Survey of Foreign Ministries of the World provides valuable insights and information on foreign ministries worldwide.

Will Shashi Tharoor’s Recommendations Reform the MEA for the Better?

The text is about Shashi Tharoor's proposed reforms for India's Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) and the impact it could have.

index.jpg

Room For Diplomacy: Britain’s Diplomatic Buildings Overseas 1800-2000

Mark Bertram joined the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works after reading architecture at Cambridge and remained in the civil service as architect, project manager, administrator, estate manager and – in his own words – ‘quasi diplomat’ for the next thirty years. He was the ministry’s regional architect in Hong Kong in the 1970s, moved to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office when it secured control of its own buildings abroad (the ‘diplomatic estate’) in 1983, and was soon head of the estate department. On surrendering that role in 1997, he became a professional adviser to the ...

jk.png

Knowledge management in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malta

In this paper, Maltese diplomat Gaetan Naudi explains how the Maltese MFA embraced the changes introduced by the informatics era. He looks at such changes from a business management perspective, to show how ICTs were introduced to such a fairly large organisation, the concerns raised by the changes, and the progress on computerised knowledge management. He concludes that despite the positive changes introduced thanks to ICTs, this would not have been possible without human involvement.

book-knowledge.jpg

Wilton Park: sui generis knowledge organisation

In his paper, Colin Jennings describes the way Wilton Park – an executive agency of the British FCO – operates. He highlights some of the key reasons for its success, and identifies some specific outcomes of the conferences organised by Wilton Park. The author also offers a few reflection on knowledge management based on his many years of experience.

coverimage.jpg

Public Diplomacy Between Home and Abroad: Norway and Canada

The text discusses public diplomacy efforts between Norway and Canada. Both countries recognize the importance of cultural exchange, education, and communication in fostering positive international relations. Various initiatives, such as academic partnerships and cultural events, are highlighted as examples of how these nations engage in public diplomacy to strengthen their ties and promote mutual understanding.

Foreign-Ministries-Change-and-adaptation.jpg

Foreign Ministries: Change and adaptation

The message talks about how foreign ministries need to adapt and change to meet the demands and challenges of the modern world.

finance.png

Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 1815-1914

The text explores the interplay of finance, trade, and politics in British foreign policy from 1815 to 1914. It discusses how economic factors influenced decision-making and shaped diplomatic relations during this period.

Foreign-Ministries-and-the-Information-Revolution.jpg

Foreign Ministries and the Information Revolution: Going Virtual?

The ongoing information revolution is perceived as a profound organizational challenge for foreign ministries. Yet there is only scant empirical evidence on the nature of the change dynamics. Anchored in new institutionalist approaches in political science, this book reconceptualizes diplomacy as an institution of the modern state order and identifies its key organizing principles maintained by the global group of foreign ministries. With this conceptualization as a point of departure, the book provides a comparative analysis of information technology effects in the foreign ministries of Canad...

41SNNJYWE7L._SY291_BO1204203200_QL40_ML2_.jpg

The British Diplomatic Service 1815-1914

The British Diplomatic Service from 1815 to 1914 showcases the evolution of a prestigious institution that adapted to the changing political landscape of the 19th century. This period saw the service expand its reach globally, employing both traditional aristocratic diplomats and a growing number of professionals. The diplomatic corps played a vital role in maintaining British interests abroad, while facing challenges such as increased international competition and demands for specialized knowledge. The period also witnessed the professionalization of diplomatic practices and the development o...

jan.png

The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations

"The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations" is a thought-provoking and insightful book that delves into the realm of public diplomacy and its significance in the context of modern international relations. Authored by Jan Melissen, a renowned scholar in the field, this book offers a comprehensive analysis of the evolving nature of diplomacy and the growing importance of soft power.

amb.png

I’ll be with you in a Minute Mr. Ambassador: The Education of a canadian Diplomat in Washington

The message shares insights from the book "I'll be with you in a Minute Mr. Ambassador: The Education of a Canadian Diplomat in Washington.

51bo0C34SoL._SX373_BO1204203200_.jpg

The Nineteenth Century Foreign Office

The Nineteenth Century Foreign Office discusses the evolution of foreign diplomacy during the 1800s, emphasizing the growth of Britain's diplomatic service, the influence of key diplomats and foreign secretaries, and the changing dynamics of international relations during this time period. It explores the impact of major events such as the Congress of Vienna, the Crimean War, and the development of the British Empire on the role and function of the Foreign Office. The article highlights the significant role played by diplomats and foreign secretaries in shaping British foreign policy and navig...

52827_book_item_52827.jpg

International Diplomacy Volume I: Diplomatic Institutions

The message provides information related to international diplomacy found in "International Diplomacy Volume I: Diplomatic Institutions.

mw117083.jpg

Report of the Review Committee on Overseas Representation

The Review Committee on Overseas Representation's report focuses on enhancing global presence and efficiency, recommending streamlining of processes, increased coordination between offices, and leveraging technology for better communication.

Foreign-Ministries.jpg

Foreign Ministries: Managing Diplomatic Networks and Optimizing Value

This is a collection of papers presented at the 2006 Conference on Foreign Ministries hosted by DiploFoundation in May 2006, in Geneva. The overarching theme is the adaptation and reform that these ministries have undertaken, in the shape of country experiences and the transformation implemented in specific areas such as the application of information technology for outreach to domestic publics, adaptation in consular services and outsourcing options. Some of the challenging issues addressed cover relations between civil servants and politicians, the role of sub-state entities in diplomacy, an...

Foreign.png

Consular Services Annual Report 2008/09

The Consular Services Annual Report 2008/09 showcases the work and assistance provided to citizens in need during the specified period.

Policy_papers_briefs_04_KR_0-200x283-1.png

Promotion Methods in Foreign Ministries (Briefing Paper #4)

Ambassador Rana looks at promotion methods in foreign ministries around the world.

book-bilateral.jpg

Bilateral Diplomacy

Bilateral Diplomacy is the first of the DiploHandbooks, a new series on practical diplomacy. The book breaks new ground in the role ascribed to bilateral diplomacy, and its importance in international affairs today. It also covers the de facto “empowerment” of the embassy that flows from its new responsibility for relationship management.

Tailor your subscription to your interests, from updates on the dynamic world of digital diplomacy to the latest trends in AI.

Subscribe to more Diplo and Geneva Internet Platform newsletters!