History of diplomacy and technology
‘The longer you can look back, the farther you can look forward.’ This quote from Winston Churchill could be a tweet about the interplay between diplomacy and technology. This page will, by revisiting the history of diplomacy, try to find guidelines for the future of diplomacy in the internet era.
In 2021, we began the learning journey through history with Diplomacy and Technology: A historical journey, a series of open monthly Zoom discussions on the history of diplomacy and technology, led by Dr Jovan Kurbalija, an expert with an academic background in international law, diplomacy, and digital technology. Our aim was to discover how civilizations dealt with ‘new’ technologies, from simple writing, via the telegraph, to the internet.
This page is created as a result of these monthly sessions. Each stop on the historical journey visits a period in time, and gives you more details, resources, interviews and videos related to the topic. Click on a ‘Dig deeper’ button to discover the additional content.
Podcast interviews with leading experts
Diplomacy between tradition and innovation | Amb. Stefano Baldi
The telegraph and diplomacy | Tom Standage
Soft and hard power of Byzantine diplomacy | Prof. Jonathan Shepard
The history of drinks and diplomacy | Tom Standage
What can diplomats learn from primates? | Prof. Frans de Waal
A historical timeline
Diplomacy started when our predecessors realised that it was better to hear the message than to eat the messenger.
Source: DiploFoundation
-120000
Prehistory
To find how diplomacy began, we need to go back to prehistoric times and look at the developments which nurtured proto-diplomacy. Several factors are important in our search for the origins of diplomacy, including the emergence of tools, trade, art, gifts, and the spoken and written language.
A relief of cuneiform writing from Assyria, exhibited in the British Museum London
Source: Jan van der Crabben
-3500
The invention of writing (ancient Mesopotamia)
Cuneiform is a system of writing first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia c.3500 BC–3000 BC. When the ancient cuneiform tablets of Mesopotamia were discovered and deciphered in the late 19th century, they literally transformed the human understanding of history.
Writing triggered a more sophisticated way of communication both within and between ancient societies. We navigate through the rich diplomatic heritage of ancient Babylon, Sumeria, Egypt, the Hittite Empire, India, Persia, and China.
The first full diplomatic archive: clay tablets called the Amarna Letters which elaborate communications system, diplomatic protocol, and diplomatic envoys.
Source: Dr. Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin
-1350
Amarna diplomacy (Ancient Egypt)
The first full diplomatic archive: clay tablets called the Amarna Letters which elaborate communications system, diplomatic protocol, and diplomatic envoys.
The Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty from around 1259 BC, made between Ramses II and Hattusili III.
Source: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP (Glasg). Neus Museum, Berlin
-1300
Hittite Empire (1650 BC–1180 BC)
Hittite diplomacy was a fully developed system, encompassing the typical diplomatic instruments and tools. Hittite diplomacy is well known for the first peace treaty (often called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty) from around 1259 BC, made between Ramses II and Hattusili III.
The Library of Ashurbanipal of Assyria is a collection of thousands of clay tablets and fragments containing texts of all kinds from the 7th century BC. It was the first systematically organised library in the world.
Source: Gary Todd. Gallery, British Museum, London, UK.
-720
Assyrian diplomacy
The Assyrian state emerged and reached its zenith during the Sargonid Dynasty (722 BC–612 BC), and the reigns of Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Ashurbanipal. Assyrian dynasties used both war and diplomacy in order to achieve their goals.
A Persian horseman depicted on a felt saddlecloth from Pazyrik, fifth century BC.
Source: persianthings.wordpress.com
-500
Persian era
One of the main legacies of the Persians was a highly developed communication and road system – an ancient-era internet.
The marble stele on which was inscribed the treaty made between Athens and the southern Italian city of Rhegion around 440 BC.
Source: Elgin Collection, British Museum, London, UK.
-450
Ancient Greek diplomacy
Ancient Greek diplomacy was one of the most open diplomacies ever practiced. Paradoxically, at least at first glance, this openness created one of the major weaknesses of ancient Greek diplomacy.
Byzantium particularly excelled in the use of protocol and ceremonies with the main aim to impress foreign dignitaries.
Source: DiploFoundation
395 – 1453
Byzantine diplomacy
The backbone of the Byzantine Empire’s (AD 395–1453) longevity was its administration which managed to adapt to frequent changes of rulers and ongoing crises on its borders. With very limited military force, diplomacy was the key to the empire’s survival.
The coat of arms of Viterbo. The papal insignia must be ascribed to the fact that Viterbo was the papal residence in the second half of the 13th century.
Source: bifrost.it
781 – 1798
Papal diplomacy
The Roman Catholic Church had complete control over the ‘information technology’ of the day. One of the main reasons was its choice of technology for the exchange of information – the adoption of parchment over papyrus.
Hans Holbein’s painting The Ambassadors (1533) became a visual trademark of diplomacy.
Source: Public domain
1400
Renaissance diplomacy
Renaissance diplomacy developed between Italian city-states. During the Renaissance, the first full diplomatic system, consisting of permanent diplomatic missions, diplomatic reporting, and diplomatic privileges, was established.
The invention of the printing press around 1440 by the German Johannes Gutenberg. This invention had a considerable impact on all functions of society, including diplomacy.
Source: DiploFoundation
1440
The Reformation
The end of the ‘parchment era’ and the start of the ‘printed-documents era’ in diplomatic communication.
Le gateau des rois. Satire on the Congress of Vienna: Five crowned heads of Europe dispute over a map of Europe while Napoleon cuts off the part with France; Tallerand hides under the table.
Source: The British Museum.
1814 – 1815
The Congress of Vienna
The 1814/15 Congress of Vienna laid the foundation for modern diplomacy – including the introduction of diplomatic precedent and diplomatic ranks. The period between the Congress of Vienna and the First World War is often described as a golden age of diplomacy, which managed to secure one of the most peaceful periods in recent history.
The Schilling telegraph is a needle telegraph invented by Pavel Schilling in the nineteenth century.
Source: Public domain
1832
Invention of the electrical telegraph
Russian diplomat Pavel Schilling conducted a successful experiment with the electrical telegraph.
Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston (1784–1865)
Source: Public domain
1860
First diplomatic note via electrical telegraph
‘My God, this is the end of diplomacy.’ Such was the reported reaction of Lord Palmerston, the then British prime minister, on receiving the first telegraph message in the 1860s.
ITU Monument. In 1908, the delegates at the International Telegraph Conference in Lisbon approved a project to erect a monument in Berne, Switzerland, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the International Telegraph Union (ITU) in 1915.
Source: Wikipedia
1865
International Telegraph Union (ITU) established
Established in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, the ITU drafted the earliest international standards and regulations governing international telegraph networks. The development of the telegraph in the early 19th century changed the way people communicated on the local and international levels. Between 1849 and 1865, a series of bilateral and regional agreements among Western European states attempted to standardize international communications.
A detail of the Zimmermann Telegram as it was sent from Washington, DC, to Ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt, the German ambassador to Mexico.
Source: Public domain
1870
Three important telegrams in the history of diplomacy
The Ems Telegram (1870) sparked the Franco-Prussian war, and led towards the establishment of Germany as a unified state. The Kruger Telegram (1896) was a message sent by Germany’s Kaiser Wilhelm II to Stephanus Johannes Paulus Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic. It defined Germany’s role in South Africa and the start of Anglo-German antagonism. The Zimmermann Telegram (1917) was a secret diplomatic communication, issued from the German Foreign Office in 1917, which proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico, triggering the USA’s entrance into WWI.
Marconi Company 5Kw wireless telegraph installation in an ocean liner in 1913.
Source: Public domain.
1912
Regulating radio communication
In response to the Titanic tragedy, at the 1912 International Radiotelegraph Conference, members established the SOS Morse code distress signal as a common wavelength for ships’ radio distress signals.
Winston Churchill at the BBC before a speech on Victory in Europe Day, 8 May 1945.
Source: Public domain.
1942
Radio broadcasting
The most significant tool that influenced the outcome of WWII was the radio. It was used as a propaganda and morale-boosting medium by all sides involved in the conflict.
United Nations Secretary General U Thant addressing the ITU’s Conference on Space Radiocommunications in Geneva from New York via Telstar
Source: ITU
1963
Teleconferencing by the ITU between New York and Geneva
Almost 50 years ago (7 October 1963), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) organized the first e-participation session in multilateral diplomacy. The ITU “walked the talk” by opening the first conference on satellite communication with a satellite-facilitated address by U Thant, the UN Secretary-General.
Source: DiploFoundation
1991
The CNN effect
During the First Gulf War (1991–1992) in Iraq, the CNN had reporters and cameras on the ground, reporting the conflict live via television. In this way, CNN helped shape public opinion about the situation on the ground, and influenced decisions on further military actions.
Source: DiploFoundation
2010
Social media used in diplomacy
Diplomats are using social media platforms to communicate with peers and to support each other’s positions.
Source: Willem-Paul Brinkman
2022
Metaverse diplomacy
Metaverse diplomacy is the practice of engaging in diplomatic activities and negotiations in virtual worlds, such as video games, virtual reality, and other online platforms. It involves using digital tools to facilitate communication between players, governments, and other stakeholders. It is a form of digital diplomacy that seeks to bridge the gap between the physical and virtual worlds.
January 2021 | Introduction
On this page, we first focus on the interplay between continuity and change in the history of diplomacy and technology. Next, we look at information and communication, the two core pillars of diplomacy. Finally, we analyse the impacts technology had on the political environment in which diplomats operated, the topics they discussed, and the tools they used. In applying this methodology, we try to identify common patterns through history, as well as the importance of the time–space context for the interplay between technology and diplomacy.
Read the summary, or watch the recording of introductory masterclass session of our Diplomacy and Technology: A historical journey series
Dig deeper
February 2021 | Prehistory: The birth of diplomacy and early “technologies”
To find how diplomacy began, we need to go back to prehistoric times and look at the developments which nurtured proto-diplomacy. Several factors are important in our search for the origins of diplomacy, including the emergence of tools, trade, art, gifts, and the spoken and written language.
Read the summary and watch the recording of our masterclass session Prehistory: the birth of diplomacy and early ‘technologies! Listen to the podcast interview with Prof. Frans de Waal, and browse the list of resources related to the topic.
Dig deeper
March 2021 | Ancient Diplomacy: What can it teach us?
Writing triggered a more sophisticated way of communication both within and between ancient societies. We navigated through the rich diplomatic heritage of ancient Babylon, Sumeria, Egypt, the Hittite Empire, India, Persia, and China.
Read the summary, listen to the podcast, or watch the recording of our masterclass session Ancient Diplomacy: What can it teach us? Listen to the podcast interview with Tom Standage, deputy editor of The Economist, on the history
Dig deeper
April 2021 | Ancient Greece: Politics, new tools, and negotiations
We owe the term ‘diplomacy’ to the ancient Greeks (meaning ‘folded in two’). Ancient Greek diplomacy was probably the most open form of diplomacy in history, delivered in plenary sessions. Ancient Greece also made early innovations in communication by developing some type of proto-telegraph. Lastly, they made huge advancements in developing crypto-protected communication.
Read the summary, listen to the podcast, or watch the recording of our masterclass session Ancient Greek diplomacy: Politics, new tools, and negotiations! Browse the list of resources related to the topic. Additionally, time travel to the epoch with the sounds of Ancient Greece.
Dig deeper
May 2021 | Byzantine diplomacy: The elixir of longevity
Byzantine diplomacy was the key to this empire’s long survival. After the fall of Rome in 476, the Byzantine Empire tried to continue Rome’s tradition and restore its glory, but without the power of the Roman Empire, it had to turn to diplomacy to a greater extent.
Read the summary of the Byzantine Diplomacy episode and find out about Byzantine soft and hard power in our podcast interview with Prof. Jonathan Shepard, historian, and one of the leading scholars on the topic. Browse the list of resources related to the topic. Additionally, browse through the curated list of videos related to Byzantine history.
Dig deeper
June 2021 | Renaissance diplomacy: Compromise as a solution to conflict
Renaissance diplomacy developed between Italian city-states. In this period the first full diplomatic system was established. It consisted of permanent diplomatic missions, diplomatic reporting, and diplomatic privileges. Another important development was the invention of the printing press. This invention had a considerable impact on all functions of society, including diplomacy.
Read the summary, listen to the podcast, or watch the recording of our masterclass session Renaissance diplomacy: Compromise as a solution to conflict Browse the list of resources related to the topic. Additionally, time travel to the epoch with the sounds of Renaissance Europe.
Dig deeper
August 2021 | The telegraph: How it changed diplomacy
The key technological invention of the 19th century was the telegraph, which effectively detached communication from transportation. On the diplomatic side, 1814/15 Congress of Vienna laid the foundation for modern diplomacy. The period between the Congress of Vienna and World War I was often described as a golden age of diplomacy, which managed to secure one of the most peaceful periods in recent history.
Read the summary and watch the recording of our August masterclass The telegraph: How it changed diplomacy! Listen to the podcast interview with Tom Standage, deputy editor of The Economist, and browse the list of resources related to the topic.
September 2021 | Telephone diplomacy: Dialling the ‘red line’
The telephone facilitated a close contact among heads of state, including various ‘red lines’ for urgent communication, while wireless communication, mainly the radio, was used by countries which didn’t develop telegraph infrastructures on time to close the gap with those who did. Diplomatic issues raised in international policy surrounding telephone and wireless communication, such as security, privacy, and neutrality, are still discussed today in the context of digital policy.
Read the summary, listen to the podcast, or watch the recording of our masterclass session Telephone diplomacy: Dialling the ‘red line’. Browse the list of resources and videos related to the topic.
Dig deeper
October 2021 | Radio and TV broadcasting and public diplomacy
Radio broadcasting proved to be a powerful communications tool. Politicians understood the power of the radio quite early, between WWI and WWII. For the first time, they could address the wider population directly via radio, without having their message filtered by the press.
Since its invention in 1926, the television has become a main news and entertainment medium. For the first time, we were able to see and hear world news as it happened, and countries and diplomats started using TV as a quick source of information, and a powerful tool for public diplomacy.
Read the summary and watch the recording of our October masterclass, when we discussed how radio and TV broadcasting influenced diplomacy. Browse the list of resources and videos related to the topic.
November 2021 | #Diplomacy: Internet and social media
Diplomats use the internet for meetings, sharing information, negotiating, and communicating. Even ‘corridor diplomacy’, which was strongly linked to traditional diplomacy, has been replaced by emails, Twitter, and Zoom meetings.
Social media has drastically changed what can be achieved at the negotiation table, as internet users and the public affect the process and outcome of negotiations.
Read the summary and watch the recording of our November masterclass, when we discussed the impact of internet and social media on diplomacy. Listen to the podcast interview with Amb. Stefano Baldi, and browse the list of resources related to the topic.
December 2021 | Future of diplomacy
In 2021, an estimated 2.5 quintillion bytes of data was generated per day. Statistics show that by 2025, 463 exabytes of data will be produced on a daily basis. Described as the ‘oil’ of the 21st century, the potential of data to achieve breakthroughs in various industries and fields is significant. Diplomacy is no exception. Despite popular belief that diplomacy is traditional in nature, it is tasked to continuously adapt to an ever-changing world.
Over the past few years, there has been significant progress in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), which is increasingly becoming part of our everyday lives (from intelligent digital personal assistants and smart home devices, to autonomous vehicles, smart buildings and medical robots) and not just the stuff of science fiction.
With AI’s entry into all aspects of society, it will inevitably influence diplomacy. The more deeply AI is integrated into society, the larger the effect will be on the context in which diplomats operate.
