Soft power diplomacy

Soft power diplomacy in history

The concept of “soft power,” defined by Joseph Nye, a distinguished American political scientist, as the ability to influence others and achieve desired outcomes through attraction and persuasion rather than coercion or payment, has become a cornerstone of modern international relations theory. Coined in the late 1980s, soft power derives from a country’s cultural appeal, the attractiveness of its political values, and the perceived legitimacy and moral authority of its foreign policies. Although the term is relatively new, using cultural and diplomatic tools has deep historical roots.

Even in ancient times, we can see examples of soft power diplomacy. The Roman Empire promoted “Romanisation” during the Pax Romana. This encouraged people across its territories to adopt Roman customs, language, legal systems, and architecture. Public works like theatres and baths showcased Roman wealth, inspiring admiration and voluntary assimilation. This approach reduced conflict and allowed for more efficient governance than solely using military force. Although strong military power often supported these cultural efforts, this strategy shows an early understanding of attraction’s role in maintaining influence. Similarly, the Ming Dynasty’s Treasure Fleet voyages in the 15th century, led by Admiral Zheng He, aimed to display China’s wealth and cultural superiority. These voyages encouraged trade and diplomatic ties rather than conquest.

Cultural prestige became more important during the Renaissance, as seen with the Medici family in Florence. Their support of the arts and philosophy beautified their city and increased their political influence among other Italian city-states. The Medici family positioned themselves within a strong cultural network by hosting influential figures and commissioning famous artworks, enhancing Florence’s reputation and legitimising their authority through association with art and knowledge. This period also saw the spread of Renaissance Humanism, a set of ideas that created a shared intellectual framework among European elites, which led to easier diplomatic engagements.

As modern nation-states emerged, governments became more directly involved in soft power. In the 18th and 19th centuries, French became the common language in European diplomacy and culture, reflecting France’s cultural appeal. A precise instance of ideological soft power appeared in the early 20th century with “Wilsonianism.” President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which promoted self-determination, democracy, and a League of Nations, resonated globally, especially among colonised peoples. Although these ideas were not immediately realised, Wilsonian ideals greatly influenced later international norms and institutions.

The Cold War marked a high point for organised soft power as a strategy. The United States and the Soviet Union used cultural exports, educational exchanges, and international broadcasting to win people’s hearts and minds. The U.S. showcased Hollywood films, jazz music (through the “Jazz Ambassadors”), programs like Fulbright, and broadcasts from Voice of America and Radio Free Europe to project an image of freedom and prosperity. In response, the Soviet Union promoted “socialist modernity,” highlighting principles of equality and anti-imperialism while supporting cultural organisations and exchanges. Although these efforts aimed to attract others, they often blurred into propaganda, showing the complex relationship between genuine cultural appeal and strategic manipulation.

Since the 1990s, countries such as China (through Confucius Institutes and the Belt and Road Initiative), Russia (with RT and cultural events), and Qatar (by hosting major sports events and through Al Jazeera) have used soft power to build their global influence. Today, soft power remains essential to international relations, shaping how countries perceive and connect through shared values, cultural prestige, and personal interactions.

What is the difference between soft power and hard power?

Hard power refers to using coercion, military or economic force to influence another state’s behaviour. Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through the use of culture, values, and ideas. Soft power attempts to influence indirectly by creating a desire for the power holder’s goals, whereas hard power relies on coercion and military power to achieve its objectives.

What are diplomatic instruments of soft power?

Soft power resources are used in numerous contexts in international relations and world politics.

E-diplomacy is an essential tool of soft power. It includes using websites, blogs, and social media to shape public opinion and influence global conversations. During the Arab Spring, the importance of social media led to the use of Twitter and Facebook diplomacy. You can learn more about using social media and other online tools to increase soft power. 

Cultural diplomacy is a crucial way to connect with different groups and help people understand the values and culture of a country. Cultural diplomacy includes:

• The organization of festivals and exhibitions.
• The exchange of artists.
• Support for film and other art projects.

Cultural diplomacy is part of the broader umbrella concept of public diplomacy.

Education diplomacy is becoming more critical as countries use educational exchanges and scholarships to build relationships, international prestige, and soft power. This includes providing opportunities to study abroad and educational programs and exchanges to improve diplomatic relations and international cooperation. Typically, students and academics participating in educational exchange programmes develop a positive image and bond. 

Public diplomacy connects with people worldwide and spreads a good image. It is an integral part of soft power, which is used as an umbrella concept for cultural diplomacy, educational exchanges, and media outreach. Through public diplomacy, countries foster relationships, promote their foreign policy objectives, and increase their influence in the international arena.

Sports diplomacy is becoming an essential part of soft power. It has a wide range of aspects. Hosting events such as the FIFA World Cup improved Qatar’s public image. The relevance of major sports events for soft power is why countries lobby heavily to host the Olympics, the World Cup, and other sporting events. The second important aspect is success in sports. Argentina’s victory in Qatar has increased the country’s visibility and prestige. 

Economic diplomacy is also used to increase soft power. After the Second World War, the Marshall Plan was used to develop the economy of the European Union. However, the Marshall Plan also shaped European culture and societal priorities. China’s Belt and Road Initiative is another example of affecting more than just economic and infrastructure projects. 

What are the national practices for developing and using soft power?

How does the USA use soft power?

The USA has been using ‘soft power’ to achieve foreign policy objectives in support of military and economic powers. The USA uses soft power for persuasion, influence, and promoting its values and ideals. Soft power has allowed the USA to expand its influence and shape the behaviour of other countries without resorting to military force or economic coercion. For example, the USA has used soft power to get other countries to adopt policies like sanctions and diplomatic isolation against rogue states. 

What is India’s soft power?

India is renowned for producing many movies, music, books, and other art forms admired internationally, significantly elevating its cultural impact. Furthermore, India has adeptly employed yoga as a means of cultural exchange and international collaboration, notably through its flagship event, International Yoga Day.

How does China use soft power? 

China strategically uses soft power to promote its interests and enhance its global standing as it seeks to gain influence worldwide. By engaging in activities such as international development aid, cultural sponsorship, investment in media platforms, and active participation in international institutions like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization, China has effectively utilized soft power to influence global discussions, build alliances, and promote its economic, technological, and political objectives on the world stage.

What is Qatar’s soft power?

Qatar is a small country with significant soft power influence. Over the years, Qatar has strategically utilized its wealth to develop various soft power tools. One recent example is the successful hosting of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, greatly enhancing Qatar’s soft power status. This initiative, however, was not isolated. Qatar’s Al-Jazeera television has emerged as a highly influential global news channel, offering programs in major languages.

Additionally, Qatar has implemented various educational diplomacy initiatives, such as promoting academic excellence through special awards from the Qatar Foundation. Educational City and Science and Technology Park in Qatar house campuses of leading global universities, further contributing to the country’s soft power. Furthermore, Qatar Airways also plays a significant role in shaping Qatar’s image and its overall soft power influence. These efforts have established Qatar as a leader in soft power within the region and globally.

What is the EU’s soft power? 

The European Union (EU) is widely recognized as a significant influencer through non-military methods, known as “soft power.” However, the EU’s stance changed during the Ukraine War when it started to support increased military assistance.

The EU’s soft power is evident in its dedication to fundamental values such as democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. It also promotes peace, stability, environmental protection, and other global public goods.

The EU has a strong institutional framework, which includes tools such as development aid, healthcare, education, and poverty reduction initiatives. The EU supports research projects and exchange programs like Erasmus Plus in education. Additionally, the EU promotes cultural programs and organizes film, music, and literature events.

[Podcast] Soft and hard power of Byzantine diplomacy – An interview with Prof. Jonathan Shepard

In our podcast, Prof. Jonathan Shepard discusses Byzantine diplomacy’s soft and hard power, exploring the tactics behind the Empire’s longevity for over 1,000 years.