Ad hoc diplomacy

Why is it so important today?

In today’s fast-moving world, problems can pop up unexpectedly. The usual way governments handle issues can be slow, which is where ad hoc diplomacy becomes really useful. Here are a few reasons why it’s important now:

Speed and flexibility: When a political crisis or a humanitarian emergency arises, special envoys can be sent out almost immediately. They bypass lengthy procedures and get to the scene quickly to help resolve issues, gather information, or coordinate responses much faster than traditional diplomatic methods would allow.

Expertise when it’s needed: Not every ambassador knows how to handle every situation, like nuclear safety or responding to pandemics. Ad hoc diplomacy means that governments can choose the right person for specific challenges; whether it’s an experienced peace negotiator, an expert in economics, or a climate scientist. This ensures the best skills are used for the right problem.

Discreet conversations: If a country needs to communicate with a rival without causing a big uproar, a special envoy can engage in private discussions  through quiet, informal back channels, exploring sensitive solutions away from the public glare. This approach allows leaders to explore solutions and ease tensions without the pressure of formal meetings. It’s a crucial way to handle sensitive international issues and navigate the complexities of modern diplomacy.

A long history of ad hoc diplomacy

The idea of sending a special messenger for a specific task is as old as diplomacy itself. Before the rise of permanent embassies in the 15th century, almost all diplomacy was ad hoc. Kings and rulers would send emissaries to negotiate treaties, arrange royal marriages, or declare war, after which the envoy would return home.

Even after permanent missions became standard, ad hoc diplomacy never disappeared. Major historical turning points, like the Congress of Vienna in 1815, were essentially large-scale ad hoc conferences. The practice was formally recognised in international law with the 1969 UN Convention on Special Missions, solidifying its place as a legitimate and vital diplomatic tool. In the modern era, its use has only grown as global challenges become more complex and interconnected.

How does ad hoc diplomacy really work?

Ad hoc diplomacy is more about using a variety of flexible techniques rather than following a strict set of rules. The methods are customized to fit the particular situation. Here are some key ways it operates:

Special representatives: One common approach is sending a special representative or envoy. This person is often well-respected and has the authority to speak on behalf of their government, focusing on a specific task.

Shuttle diplomacy: This method involves sending the envoy back and forth between the countries in conflict. They carry messages and help bridge differences, often playing a crucial role in negotiations for peace.

Targeted negotiations: Ad hoc diplomacy is frequently used to tackle specific goals, like negotiating a trade agreement, establishing a ceasefire, or reaching a climate deal. These missions are set up to concentrate solely on achieving those defined objectives.

Informal communication: Much of this work happens behind the scenes. Using discreet meetings and trusted intermediaries allows for candid conversations and creative problem-solving, free from public posturing.

Who are the key actors?

When it comes to handling international issues, national governments are often at the forefront. However, there’s a surprisingly wide range of individuals and groups involved in what is known as ad hoc diplomacy:

Governments: Leaders like presidents and foreign ministers often choose special representatives to help with diplomatic efforts. These representatives can be experienced diplomats, but they may also be well-known figures from outside the government.

International organizations: The United Nations plays a significant role in global diplomacy. Its leader, the Secretary-General, often selects Special Envoys to address specific crises, such as those in Syria or Yemen. Other regional groups, like the African Union and the European Union, also appoint representatives to deal with regional challenges.

Non-state actors: Various influential groups, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academics, and even private individuals, can serve as mediators. They often engage in informal negotiations, known as “track II diplomacy”, which can sometimes lead to important breakthroughs in difficult situations.

In summary, while governments take the lead, many different players contribute to resolving international conflicts and issues.

Where does it happen?

Ad hoc diplomacy is a flexible way of handling international problems, and it can take place anywhere around the world, whenever there is a need to resolve an issue. Here are some common settings where it happens:

In bilateral relations: To solve a specific border dispute or negotiate a sensitive security agreement between two countries.

Within regional groups: To tackle challenges like counter-terrorism or water rights among neighbouring states.

At multilateral forums: In the corridors of the United Nations or the World Trade Organization, where special representatives work to break deadlocks and build consensus.

In informal venues: From secluded retreats to academic conferences, any location can become a stage for ad hoc diplomacy if it helps get the job done.

Real-world examples of diplomatic efforts

The Camp David Accords (1978)  – were a pair of agreements signed in 1978 that represented a significant turning point in the Arab-Israeli conflict. U.S. President Jimmy Carter hosted the negotiations at the Camp David presidential retreat, where intense discussions took place over thirteen days, bringing together Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin.

The accords established two key frameworks: one for peace between Egypt and Israel, and another for a broader peace in the Middle East, which included a plan for Palestinian self-governance. This landmark diplomatic effort directly led to the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, making it the first peace agreement between Israel and an Arab nation.

The Dayton Agreement (1995) – officially known as the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, was the peace treaty that brought an end to the Bosnian War, which lasted from 1992 to 1995. The agreement was facilitated by the United States and led by diplomat Richard Holbrooke, with negotiations occurring in Dayton, Ohio, in November 1995.

The key leaders involved in the conflict who signed the agreement were Alija Izetbegović, President of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Franjo Tuđman, President of Croatia; and Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia. The accord maintained Bosnia as a single state but divided it into two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

The ceremonial signing of the Agreement in Paris, France.

UN Special Envoy for Syria – Since the start of the Syrian civil war, the United Nations has appointed several special envoys to mediate the complicated situation. These envoys, from Kofi Annan to the current appointee Geir Pedersen, have worked tirelessly to negotiate ceasefires and ensure humanitarian aid reaches those in need.

Their primary mandate, based on UN Security Council Resolution 2254, is to facilitate a Syrian-led political process. They engage with the government, opposition, and international powers, striving to keep the door open for a political solution, though lasting peace has been difficult to achieve.

United Nations special envoy for Syria – Support group meeting in Vienna

The future of flexible diplomacy

Ad hoc diplomacy is not just a thing of the past; it plays an important and dynamic role in today’s international relations. This approach allows for quick, skilled, and adaptable responses to global issues as they arise. While it has its challenges, success often relies on the envoy’s unique abilities and the willingness of the conflicting parties to cooperate, its capacity to simplify complex situations is unparalleled. As global challenges continue to change, the need for skilled diplomats who can handle these situations will only increase, ensuring that ad hoc diplomacy remains a key part of solving international problems.