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Language
and Diplomacy Resources
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What is hypertext?
“Hypertext…denotes text composed of blocks of text… and the electronic links that join
them.”
(George P. Landow)
“By hypertext I mean non-sequential writing - text that branches and allows choices to the
reader, best read at an interactive screen. As popularly conceived, this is a series of text chunks
connected by links which offer the reader different pathways.” (Theodore Nelson - coined the term
“hypertext”)
“Hypertext is the presentation of information as a linked network of nodes which readers are free
to navigate in a non-linear fashion. It allows for multiple authors, a blurring of the author and
reader functions, extended works with diffuse boundaries, and multiple reading paths.”
(The
Electronic Labyrinth)
“Hypertext is non-sequential writing: a directed graph, where each node contains some amount
of text or other information… [T]rue hypertext should also make users feel that they can move
freely through the information according to their own needs. This feeling is hard to define
precisely but certainly implies short response times and low cognitive load when navigating.
(Jakob Nielson – “The Art of Navigating Through Hypertext”)
Why is hypertext relevant for diplomacy?
1. Text is central to diplomacy; the immediate or ultimate result of most diplomatic activities. The richness and complexity of diplomatic activities found not only in negotiation and representation but also in social activities and media coverage is crystallised in diplomatic documents, the foremost of which are international legal agreements.
2. Diplomatic documents are the result of complex activities. The final diplomatic and international legal documents are only the top layer - the visible result of a wealth of reference materials, supporting documents, negotiations, collaborations, etc. Full understanding and interpretation of diplomatic documents requires reference to all supporting sources. This is difficult unless they are organised in a simple and manageable way, for example, through a hypertext presentation of layers of information. Unlike with print and paper, hypertext allows for the presentation of information in multiple layers. The first layer contains a synthesis or summary of the argument, with links to the next layers. Each layer progressively elaborates and supports the argument, or particular facets of the argument. The reader decides how far to delve into each particular topic.
3. Modern diplomacy is faced with an information glut, particularly in two areas. First, the number of documents produced within the framework of various international organisations and regimes is increasing to unmanageable amounts. Second, given the complexity of contemporary international relations, diplomatic documents are becoming unmanageable in size. Information is available in quantities far beyond our capacity to process. Hypertext tools cannot reduce complexity, but they can help harness it.
4. Diplomatic developments are multi-causal. They result from a complex interplay of various national and international actors, factors, coincidences, and paradoxes. We can rarely determine exactly which events or factors led to any particular development. Hypertext can represent multi-causality realistically, showing the complex networks of cause and effect.
How can we use hypertext for language and diplomacy?
DiploFoundation has developed a hypertext document management system which allows users to make links and annotations on selected documents, and to read and respond to the links and annotations made by others. The system was originally conceived as a way to link valuable resources and add interactivity to a database of diplomatic documents. Each diplomat using a document leaves a record of his or her research and analysis which may be useful to others using the same document, eventually leading to the creation of a knowledge base rather than a simple document database.
The hypertext document management system can be used for the analysis of any type of document. It can also be used to manage discussion around a selected document. The document in posted on the Internet, visitors select the relevant text and type their comment or make a link to another website. Alternately, they can read comments made by others and respond.
In language and diplomacy, we plan to use hypertext for the analysis of certain documents, and to discuss research papers or articles submitted or suggested by mailing list members.
George Bush’s inaugural address
is an example of a document analysed using hypertext.
We have added links and annotations in order to discuss Raymond Cohen’s article
“International Negotiation: Time to Recognise
Diversity”.
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