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Diplomats need to know a certain amount, but there should be no trace of erudition or pedantry in what they know, and their knowledge should agreeably surprise and perhaps impress those with whom they are speaking, but never embarrass, offend or shame them.
Ivo Andric, Nobel Prize Laureate for Literature (1961)
With the end of the cold war, the high level of certainty and predictability in
international and national decision-making environments has been replaced with dynamic
international rela-tions and constant fluctuation. Multipolarity, combined with
globalisation and increased radical national and religious movements, has made the
international world very unstable. As a result, the "diplomatic kaleidoscope"
has been changing very fast. Diplomats are often called upon to deal with situations for
which they cannot prepare in advance, for which they cannot find instructions in
diplomatic manuals.
Knowledge—a
combination of information, training, experience and intuition—is what enables a
diplomat to act appropriately in unpredictable situations. The knowledge used in diplomacy
appears in a variety of forms, starting from the general knowledge gathered in the course
of regular education, knowledge of particular subjects such as international relations and
international law gathered through specialised diplomatic training, and ranging to
knowledge gained through experience, such as knowledge of regions, tacit knowledge of how
to react in particular situations, and knowledge of procedures.
A diplomat’s use and
need of knowledge seems in many ways obvious, but proves difficult to explain and define.
In this paper we aim to provide a comprehensive introduction to the topic of knowledge
management in diplomacy. First we provide working definitions of knowledge and knowledge
management, and examine the evolution of the concepts. Next, we consider specific features
of diplomacy that affect and limit the way knowledge management can be implemented. Then
we look at specific techniques which diplomacy can adapt from the business sector in the
field of knowledge management. Finally, we consider some important questions related to
human resources and knowledge management.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT—CONCEPT AND BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Every new discipline
develops specific terminology both by introducing new terms and assigning new uses to
existing terms. Early phases are usually characterised by terminological confusion,
especially in fields which are multidisciplinary. Knowledge management is such a
discipline, drawing from a variety of sources: management theory, economics, psychology,
information technology, etc. While everybody recognises the importance of knowledge and
knowledge management, few can define them even in vague terms.
What is
knowledge?
Philosophers
throughout history have addressed this question, arriving at a variety of answers. Our
modest attempt will not claim philosophical pretensions, however, we will try to provide
elements for a definition of knowledge as it is used in the framework of knowledge
management.
First, we must define two relevant terms from the field of information technology:
data and information.1 Data is a record of a particular event. Information is data which
has acquired additional meaning: a message beyond simple semantic meaning.2
An example from
diplomatic practice may make this distinction more clear. We can consider the fact that "Ambassador A met
Ambassador B" to be data. It is a fact—a diplomatic event. As salesmen sell
things and waiters serve food to people, diplomats meet and
discuss. If we add to this the statement that "Ambassador A and B met agreed
to conclude a visa agreement" we have information. Information carries some
additional meaning and message beyond the simple statement of
fact presented in data.
If we interpret this information and consider it from various perspectives (e.g. Ambassador A’s
country needs to improve relations with the other country; country B is under pressure
from regional institutions to conclude this agreement, etc.) we are creating knowledge.
Davenport and Prusak provide the most comprehensive definition of knowledge in the field
of knowledge management: “Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values,
contextual information, and expert insight that provides framework for evaluating and
incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds
of knowers. In organzations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or
repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices, and norms."3
In diplomacy probably more than in business sector knowledge is both a basis and a product
of the thinking process. In order to analyse we need knowledge and through analysis we
produce knowledge.
What is knowledge management?
Knowledge management is not
about the automation of the thinking process but about the use of technology to assist the
normal thinking process.4 Peter Murray and Andrew Myers from of the Cranfield
School of Management define knowledge management as "the collection of processes that
govern the creation, dissemination, and utilization of knowledge to fulfil organizational
objectives."5
An important first element
of knowledge management is the introduction of
intelligent access to
information.
Information is increasingly available and the key question is becoming how to use it in
order to gain value-added elements. For example, today you can find much information about
international conventions including texts, information about signature and ratification,
etc. The general availability of this information is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for it to be fully utilized. The data that a convention was signed by Malta is
useful and may serve a specific, limited purpose. But often one needs to approach
information in a broader context. For example, one may need to know all conventions
ratified by Malta but not by member states of the European Union. Such information can
provide useful input for further diplomatic and political activities. New techniques such
as data-mining allow this type of advanced access to information.
A second element of
knowledge management is automation of procedures through the use of
workflow. Workflow can
be defined as the series of tasks or steps used by an organization in order to produce a
final result. The increased capacities of IT have provided an opportunity to shift some
business and administrative processes from traditional methods to IT-based procedures.
Workflow is usually based on following the movement of documents in the decision-making
process. Besides improvements based on automation, workflow activities allow us to
re-examine the question of organisation of activities. The introduction of automation
usually provides an opportunity to discuss the question of preservation of institutional
memory stored in working procedures and activities. Although workflow is IT-based and
IT-related, it may have some side-effects not directly linked to IT, such as demonstrating
the need for restructuring of diplomatic services.
Another aspect of knowledge
management is the automation of routine
activities. While it is not possible to replace
human intelligence, it is possible to automate many activities if they can be logically
described. A major division in cognitive science is between those who think that all human
problems can be reduced to logical algorithms and thus simulated by machines and those who
think that human intelligence is too complex to be reduced to a description of the way
humans solve particular problems. However, both sides agree that it is possible to
automate routine activities. In diplomatic services routine activities are those related
to consular and administrative activities. For example, the process of issuing visas,
passports and other documents can be automated to a large extent through IT.
A final element of
knowledge management is the recognition and appreciation of
knowledge as an institutional
resource. Knowledge can be identified both as the knowledge employees bring with them to
their work, and the knowledge generated through the activities of an institution.
Diplomatic services have to recognise data, information and knowledge as their primary
resources. Often these are rhetorically acknowledged as a primary resource of diplomatic
services, but when it comes to day-to-day and organisational issues, this is not the case.
Sometimes, paradoxically, a piece of furniture has a higher declared financial value than
top expertise in internal organisation and accounting. Such a situation can lead to
enormous institutional and political losses. Once data, information and knowledge are
recognised as the key resources of diplomatic services, most knowledge management
improvements will be obvious and they will come as common sense solutions.
Evolution of
knowledge management
Although knowledge
management has been recently "re-discovered" by the business community, the
attempt to understand knowledge is as old as civilisation and has always been a central
theme of philosophy. Epistemology
and logic are the two key knowledge-related disciplines
that developed in ancient philosophy. Epistemology discusses the nature, structure and
origins of knowledge, while logic analyses the validity of reasoning.
Plato and Aristotle laid
the foundations of epistemology. The fundaments were further developed after the
reformation within the framework of rationalism. Cogito, ergo sum became the key
slogan of the rationalist approach. The approach centred around knowledge, human thinking
and a supposedly rational reflection on society. The line of inquiry into epistemology was
continued through the work of Kant and Hegel, and towards modern times, by the German
philosopher Edmund Husserl, founder of phenomenology, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre
and others. Cognitive science developed through a combination of traditional epistemology
with linguistics, computer science and neuroscience. The key focus of cognitive science is
on the human mind and thinking processes, including knowledge as a result of these
processes.6
As the power and potential
of tools and techniques for information management grew, the idea of managing not only
information but also knowledge emerged. Stronger computational power led towards an
attempt to create artificial intelligence. Attempts to develop computer programmes to
simulate human thinking processes failed in the 1970s, as a result of unrealistic
expectations. The failure discouraged further research in the area. Only recently, with
the increased popularity of the idea of knowledge management, have researchers begun
developing IT to assist with some mental processes and activities. Now, although the
concept of knowledge management was introduced as a pragmatic tool, it has become one of
the hype business concepts, similar to re-engineering, outsourcing, etc.
Another area where
knowledge management
has been adopted is economic and management theory. Interest in
knowledge as an economic factor has grown with the structural changes in modern economy
characterised by the increasing importance of the service sector. However, traditional
economics has had difficulties integrating knowledge into its models. Penrose, who
developed the economic theory of the firm, describes the reluctance of economists in the
following way: "Economists have, of course, always recognized the dominant role that
increasing knowledge plays in economic processes but have, for the most part, found that
the whole subject of knowledge too slippery to handle."7 American
economist Alfred Marshall highlighted the importance of knowledge as an economic factor.8
In modern economics, one of the key proponents of the importance of knowledge as an
economic factor is Paul Romer of Stanford University, who demonstrated that ideas and
knowledge are key factors in economic growth.9
The importance of knowledge
has been examined in more detail in business and management circles. Paul Drucker is
considered the founding father of knowledge management. He introduced the basic terms that
are used in this field, such as "knowledge work", "knowledge society",
etc. Drucker argues that we are moving from an economy based on traditional resources
(land, natural resources, land and capital) towards a new economy based on knowledge as a
key economic resource.10 In the field of management, knowledge has acquired a
central position in a variety of ways. Senge focuses on organisational learning; he sees
learning as a key component of a company's success. Learning should be built in to the
company structure in order to facilitate permanent growth.11 Prahalad and Hamel
focus on the concept of "core competence".12 Schein focuses on the
need to develop an organisational culture; the need to develop shared views in companies
through shared experience.13
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF THE USE OF
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN DIPLOMACY
Business sector
and diplomacy—similarities and differences
Applying business logic to
various areas of human life is a general tendency, usually aimed at increasing efficiency
and reducing expenses—the mantras of the modern world. Government and academic
sectors aim to increase their efficiency through borrowing techniques and methodologies
from the business sector. Use of IT, downsizing, and re-engineering are some of the
concepts that have been transferred from the business sector and with varying levels of
success implemented in non-business areas.
Diplomatic services
have
been included in this process to some degree, but remain close to the end of the list of
government sectors to embrace business logic. Diplomatic services were shielded by their
special status, especially during the cold war. The priority of protection of national
interests characterised by secrecy was a strong safeguard against discussion about
efficiency and organisation of diplomatic services. In the last ten years the situation
has changed dramatically. Diplomatic services have become more open to the public. This
allowed the public to look behind the walls of diplomatic services and to discuss not only
the question of foreign policy but also the process of conducting this policy. Diplomacy,
like many other professions, has been faced with the question of what is "value for
money". The most intensive debate has taken place in the UK, Canada, Australia and
recently, in the United States. Various reform attempts inspired by experience and
expertise from the business sector were introduced. Apart from their success, most of
those reforms introduced the need for diplomatic services to be more business-like. The
pendulum could even swing to the other extreme, making diplomatic services completely
business-like.
For several reasons,
however, there are limits to the application of expertise from the business sector in the
diplomatic field.
First, there is a difference in
function. While companies are
established in order to generate profit, diplomatic services promote national interests in
particular, and maintain international order in general.
Second, companies have a
strong feedback loop in the form of market and profit. This makes them constantly strive
to increase efficiency. Diplomatic services usually lack this feedback loop. Not only the
fact that diplomatic services have exclusivity in official representation of the country,
but also the specificity of diplomatic work, makes diplomacy difficult to effectively
evaluate. Moreover, the complex environment in which diplomatic services operate renders
any attempt to measure efficiency almost impossible.12
Third, processes in the
business sector are organised in order to achieve some quantifiable result at the end
(profit). Processes in diplomacy are not simple instruments to an end, but have importance
in themselves. Sometimes the diplomatic solution to a problem lies in the process.
Currently, in international affairs we have three on-going processes (North Ireland,
Dayton and Middle East) and at least one in the making (Kosovo Peace Process).
Fourth, time has a
different meaning in business and in diplomacy. While in the business sector the guiding
principle is to do more in less time, in diplomatic services the equation is more
complex. Often it is
necessary to have some delay between message and response. Sometimes the time factor is an
important element of diplomatic signalling. Delays in response, the channels through which
a response is sent, etc., are all part of diplomatic signalling.
These major differences
between the business sector and diplomacy influence the application of knowledge
management in diplomacy. In the business sector knowledge has instrumental value which is
directly applied to particular circumstances (management campaigns, interaction with
customers, etc.). In diplomacy, knowledge has a more general importance. It is the basis
of organisation and is more often used indirectly, for reacting to new situations, than
directly, to deal with expected situations.
Specific
features of diplomacy that could influence knowledge management projects
The nature of diplomacy and
diplomatic processes naturally influences the type and degree of IT related knowledge
management projects appropriate for diplomatic services. Diplomacy is a
"human-intensive" activity; it is conducted largely through personal
communication and individual actions, evaluations and decisions. Therefore, diplomacy
cannot easily be represented through structural logical representation. It evades
codification and rigid formulations. Diplomacy is based on intensive human communication
at various layers of interaction. Day-to-day conveying of information and exchanging of
messages is the first and obvious level of communication, and this is already often
performed through IT communication tools. But communication has aspects other than the
technical means of message conveyance. One of these aspects is intentionality: our ability
to think about the perception another person has of us, or to go further, our ability to
consider what other people think that we think about them, etc. Our social communication
depends to a large extent on the level of intentionality that we can achieve: usually four
to five levels.15 In traditional diplomacy the ability to envisage the reaction
of the other side is crucial.
The requirements of
diplomacy for spontaneous human involvement is usually presented as one of the key
arguments for the limited possibilities of the use of IT in diplomacy. Without arguing
that IT based communication is better or worse than face-to-face communication, we can
think of certain situations where it may be a benefit if the "noise" of normal
human communication is replaced with dry electronic communication. Last year, negotiation
exercises conducted via the Internet demonstrated that in certain situations the simple
conveyance of messages without the trappings of body-language, tacit communication,
intentionality, etc. can be very effective in the process of achieving diplomatic
breakthroughs.
Application of
knowledge and information to the decision making process
Diplomatic services operate
through a constant process of decision making. Every day, a variety of decisions, from the
routine to those which could determine the future of the country and decide questions of
war or peace, are made. How can the wealth of information, preserved knowledge, and
institutional memory accumulated by the diplomatic service be applied in the decision
making process?
This is a key question, because practice in diplomatic services shows that
often decisions are not a product of textbook style rational rules applied by rational
decision-makers based on available facts, past decisions and expertise. On the contrary,
decisions are often made through the specific interplay of rational elements,
institutional memory, political influences, trade-offs on the international, national and
institutional level, and last but not least, the influence of individuals.
The key for the success of
knowledge management projects in diplomatic services will be the establishment of this
link between recorded information and knowledge and the decision-making process.
The first
step in making this link is to make information and knowledge readily available. The
expertise is usually available in the services, but not accessible or acknowledged: often
diplomatic services do not know what they know.
The second step is to make information and
knowledge accessible not only in the technological sense (access to the computers,
libraries), but also in the logical sense (possibility of pinpointing and selecting the
most relevant information, i.e. data-mining).
The third, and likely most difficult, step
is to base decisions on information and available knowledge. This is a very complex task,
the success of which has serious limitations not only organizationally, but also in human
nature. Knowledge management can make a difference by making information easily available
to decision-makers. Ignoring knowledge and information is a decision in itself.
PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES OF
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN DIPLOMACY
Information
management
One of the key arguments of the early
"techno-optimists" was that diplomats would become obsolete
because information would be easily accessible via the Internet.
However, information gathering, one of diplomatic functions listed in
the Vienna
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Convention, is not simply the collection
of information, via the Internet or from any other source. Information
gathering would be better referred to as information management: a broad
process which starts with gathering data and ends by providing relevant information for decision-making processes. The
changing context of information management in diplomacy was nicely summarised by Newt
Gingrich in a speech at Georgetown University: "Now (there)'s a level of
proliferation of data, of information unlike anything that the human race has ever known.
And in that context, to suggest that we're going to have traditional ambassadors in
traditional embassies reporting to a traditional desk at the State Department, funnelling
information up through a traditional assistant secretary who will meet with a traditional
secretary strikes me as unimaginable. And of course, in the real world, it no longer works
that way."16
After data is gathered it
must be transformed into relevant information, usually through one of the following three
essential techniques: contextualisation, data-mining and condensing. These techniques are
not new but they have taken on a completely new life with new technology.
a) The first technique of
information management is contextualisation. The enormous amounts of data available
on the Internet have to be put into the proper context in order to be useful. This is the
process of transforming data into relevant information. For example, the data that two
ambassadors met does not mean much if this data is not put into the proper context.
Context building involves answering questions such as: Why did they meet? Was it a regular
meeting? Did they agree about something? How often do they meet? What could be the
consequence of this meeting? Contextualisation requires special skills and knowledge which
go beyond simple technological proficiency. Contextualisation has to be performed both on
the spot (i.e. in the place and at the time of the event in questions) and in the
ministry. Nothing can replace a diplomat on the spot who knows the complex social and
cultural web and local circumstances that can help in interpreting particular data. After
contextualisation on the local level is performed (in the particular country, mission or
region) that information must be put into the broader context of the overall activities of
the diplomatic service. A diplomat on the spot can provide proper local context but may
not have the broader perspective of the overall diplomatic service. Therefore,
contextualisation must also be applied on the level of the diplomatic service. For this
activity, horizontal communication in diplomatic services needs to be enhanced, enabling
easy access to data from various departments, missions abroad, etc.
What can knowledge
management contribute in this respect? First, organisationally speaking, certain
techniques and methods can help overcome the limitations of hierarchical organisation and
enhance horizontal exchange whenever it is necessary. While preserving positive elements
of hierarchy for stability of the institution, dynamics should be provided through various
forms of problem-centred structures. Problem-centred structures provide smooth shifts in
the perspectives from which particular problems are addressed. Nowadays, in our
inter-connected world, any diplomatic event can be approached from a number of
perspectives. Essentially bilateral data can have multilateral consequences and a wide
variety of cultural, political and economic aspects. Thus, in a proper analysis, data
should be evaluated from as many angles as possible.
Second, technically
speaking, certain IT tools can ease the process of contextualisation. Besides databases
which provide access to structural information, hypertext is a key tool for access to
unstructured information. Contextualisation usually involves the management of
unstructured information. For example, through hypertext tools, context could be built by
linking a paragraph of text about the meeting between two ambassadors to another paragraph
with a report about their previous meetings or cultural activities between the two
countries. Sometimes a diplomat may want to add comments or annotations to a text.
Hypertext allows the same information to be positioned in different contexts. Moreover,
hypertext enables management of advanced interpretation features such as "reading
between lines" or "small print": meaning that cannot be detected at first
glance. The "DiploWizard" system developed by DiploProjects at the Mediterranean
Academy of Diplomatic Studies includes practical tools which could be considered a first
step towards the creation of intelligent hypertext tools for the contextualisation of
diplomatic information.
b) A second important
technique in information management for diplomats is data-mining. Data-mining
involves deriving useful information from vast amount of data using the processing power
of computers. An example of data-mining techniques in diplomacy is the use of "voting
patterns" in bilateral relations between the USA and other countries. The American
diplomatic services gather and process voting data from the United Nations in order to
learn about the voting patterns of particular countries which are of concern to the United
States. The isolated data that a particular country voted for a proposed UN Security
Council resolution gains new significance when it is seen as part of a series of similar
data including the way that country voted in the past and the way various other countries
voted. Thus, data-mining can derive very interesting information of possible use as the
basis for further diplomatic activities out of otherwise unconnected data.
Although theoretically
speaking it was possible to perform data-mining in the past (through manual searches of
all records), data-mining is made easy with the increase of processing power and storage
capacity of computers.
c) The third important
technique for information management is condensation. We are currently inundated
with enormous quantities of information. Thus, simply finding information is no longer the
question, but now the key technique is to select relevant information, put it into context
and present it in a concise form. Faced with proliferation of documents and materials,
participants in international diplomatic life, both diplomatic services and international
organisations, often find themselves concentrating on the means (documents) rather than on
the real problems that should be addressed through those documents. The information glut
is becoming unmanageable.
One organisational solution
that could be introduced is to impose a limit that any problem or issue should be
presented on a maximum of one or two pages. This solution could work in a paper-based
world, but has a few serious limitations. First, reduction of complexity without reduction
of meaning is one of the most demanding intellectual tasks. It requires a particular
mixture of skills that may be difficult to find, such as logical thinking, ability to make
abstract constructions, high literacy, etc. Moreover, even if one has those skills,
reduction of a complex issue to a few pages may reduce the richness of information and
deprive the user of one of the advantages that the Internet provides—access to vast
amounts of information. The solution is to change the paradigm, though the use of
hypertext, which provides an excellent advantage—the presentation of information in
layers. A paper-based version of the presentation of information in layers is already in
use in business reports which present first an executive summary, and after that more
detailed considerations of the particular problems. With the hypertext approach, one can
start with the first layer containing an "executive summary". The second layer
would contain more detailed explanation. The next layer could contain academic
perspectives on a particular problem. Following that, one could deal with the economic
perspective, and so on. Even more importantly, the document itself could have annotated
hypertext links to resources other than text. (Annotated hypertext links provide pointers
to other documents with explanations of why those documents are relevant to the
discussion.)
Parallel
to the
proliferation of information, one often hears nowadays that modern problems are too
complex. This is not just an incidental observation by overwhelmed diplomats but a real
development based on the fact that the modern world is becoming increasingly
inter-connected. Many problems have perspectives and aspects that go far beyond
traditional classifications of politics, economy, or society. How can diplomats deal with
this? Often the first idea is to reduce complexity by simplifying things—an appealing
solution, especially in politics. People like simple answers. Unfortunately, the
historical track record of providing simple answers to complex questions is not very
favourable. Generally speaking, simplification carries the potential difficulty of
undermining elements that look unimportant at the time but which may, with the intensive
developments in modern society, become more important later on. Hypertext provides another
solution: it allows us to present an simple and short story while at the same time
preserving complex data-structures necessary for a complete understanding of an issue or
problem.
Diplomatic
processes and knowledge management
The functioning of
diplomatic services can be explained in terms of processes. Any diplomatic service is
involved in a variety of processes. Beside the type of processes which are themselves the
object of diplomatic work (Northern Ireland Peace Process, Middle East Peace Process,
etc.), numerous processes take place within diplomatic services. The key resource in these
processes is information, which is contextualised through the process. But the value-added
element that makes a process successful or not is the knowledge which is used to evaluate
and make decisions. As already discussed, diplomatic processes are much broader than those
in the business sector. In the business sector companies can customise processes to fit
their stable and predictable interaction with an environment (selling, providing
consultancy). In diplomacy, on the other hand, the operational environment both within a
country and internationally fluctuates.
This fluctuation of
environment limits the level of automation that can be applied and the type of knowledge
management tools that can be used. A more detailed exploration of diplomatic processes
shows that processes fit into three main groups:
a) Highly repetitive
and routine processes are those which follow a clear sequence; each step is
predictable. Most of these processes are related to consular activities such as issuing
visas or passports. The steps involve filling out forms, asking other departments for
recommendations, checking criminal records, issuing visas or passports, etc. These
procedures could easily be translated into computer algorithms and facilitated through
specially developed computer applications with limited need for human intervention.
b) The majority of
diplomatic activities fall into the category of semi-repetitive tasks.
Globalisation has intensified the process of development of international regimes in the
field of environment, trade, human rights, etc. Based on international conventions, these
regimes consist of machinery that organises regular meetings, processes documents,
provides opinions, controls implementation of conventions, etc. These activities are
carried out through more-or-less regular processes. Reports are prepared for specific
periods of time; meetings of various committees are organised repeatedly in a more or less
routine manner. The form is repetitive, while the content fluctuates, depending on
developments in the field. Some areas such as trade-regimes in the field of WTO have
recently been more dynamic than others. Also in bilateral relations, activities are
increasingly following certain patterns. Bilateral cooperation regimes established by
bilateral conventions, for example, consist of regular meetings of mixed committees.
Moreover, technical conventions in the field of double taxation, air-service transport,
and investment are also established according to clear patterns. The repetitive aspects of
these activities are ideal for automation. In addition, advanced knowledge management
techniques can be designed to retain expertise developed in the framework of these
activities, especially in the areas of high technical expertise (environment, trade,
etc.).
c) The last group of
activities associated with diplomacy are non-repetitive activities. These
are the cream of diplomatic activities, consisting mainly of negotiation both on
multilateral and bilateral levels aimed at solving international crises or bilateral
problems, establishing new bilateral and multilateral regimes, etc. These processes
require a lot of information and knowledge which cannot be codified into consistent
logical structures. Advanced knowledge management tools can play a key role in
non-repetitive activities, assisting in creative decision making, and even more
importantly, in capturing knowledge and expertise developed through the process of making
creative decisions.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCES
Knowledge requires a
specific type management. It cannot be managed in the same way as other resources, and it
cannot be managed "separately from the people in whose heads it resides".17
The key for the success of knowledge
management projects is their acceptance by the people who use them. More than in any other
area of the use of technology, the rule that "humans make or break" applies to
knowledge management. Following are some important aspects of knowledge management
relating to human resources.
Creating a
knowledge culture
One of the biggest
challenges of knowledge management is the creation of a knowledge culture. People often
fear and resist change. Without the appropriate culture among users, tools will not be
effective regardless of their potential.
An initial problem with the
introduction of IT is the fear people have of computer technology. At first people thought
that computers could replace humans in the workplace. As each new level of technology is
introduced people move from the initial fear and gradually come to accept, use and trust
new systems. While computers have certainly not replaced people, they have changed work
patterns greatly.
Knowledge is a source of
power. Thus, it is often difficult to persuade people to share their knowledge to the
benefit of others, whether it is in the business sector, international organisations, or
ministries of foreign affairs. Many knowledge management tools are designed to store and
make available the knowledge acquired by individuals through years of experience. Unless
individuals are willing to share their knowledge these tools cannot be effective.
Training and
transferring knowledge—a continuous process
Knowledge management offers
great potential in the areas of knowledge transfer and training. It is important to keep
in mind that diplomacy both uses and produces knowledge. Diplomats use knowledge in order
to perform their function; simultaneously they produce new knowledge. In this sense,
diplomacy is "knowledge perpetum mobile".
Diplomatic training should
be positioned within this circle. Training facilities should be built into diplomatic
services and activities. This would allow, on the one hand, the transfer of continually
generated knowledge and experience into training. On the other hand, knowledge provided
through on-demand training should be easily integrated into diplomatic processes. Academic
training institutions for diplomatic studies will have a more complex task in this
respect.
Establishing the
function of Diplomatic Knowledge and Information Officer (DKIO)
This position which has
proved effective in the business sector could be introduced into diplomatic services. The
DKIO should focus and coordinate knowledge management activities. The ideal DKIO would be
a diplomat with a broad general culture, a talent for managing human resources, high
technological awareness, and eagerness to challenge traditional views. The position of
DKIO should be high in the traditional organisation of diplomatic services, and this
should be reflected in all aspects of personal status (salary, promotions, postings,
etc.).
Retirement and
knowledge management
The departure of a leading
expert in a particular field without codification of his or her expertise could mean a
major financial loss (you may have to pay for expensive consultancy). The traditional
approach, for example, often leads to a paradoxical situation whereby many ministries
deprive themselves of expertise with a diplomat's retirement. In many cases diplomats do
not accept retirement with great enthusiasm since diplomacy is a very specific job which
involves a lot of personal commitment. Once out of that circle many diplomats feel lost.
Therefore, knowledge management offers a potential "win-win" formula. On the one
hand ministries of foreign affairs can preserve a valuable resource—the information
and knowledge possessed by diplomats. On the other hand, retired diplomats can remain
somewhat connected to diplomatic professional circles. Of course we cannot keep people
forever in the service, but one can think about making a smooth transition towards
retirement with some scheme that would enable utilisation of this resource even after
retirement, for mutual benefit. Our DiploWizard system should facilitate one of those
schemes through Knowledge Management Centre. The centre links junior diplomats and others
in need of knowledge with retired diplomats: those who have knowledge, and more
importantly, those who have the time and readiness to share their knowledge.
Integrated human
resource management
The traditional perception
of the hierarchical organization of a diplomatic service, consisting of headquarters and
missions, should be gradually transformed towards a perception of a diplomatic service as
an integrated system. The role of any participant in such a system, in the missions or at
headquarters, should be decided by his/her potential contribution to a particular activity
of the service rather than his/her hierarchical position.
Personal promotions in
diplomatic services are governed by a variety of elements (need for service, personal and
family preferences, emergencies, coincidences, etc.). This often leads to situations
where, for example, you may find an expert on some multilateral issue working in a
bilateral diplomatic mission. An expert on copyright, law of the sea, trade issues, etc.
may end up, due to various reasons, in an embassy dealing exclusively with bilateral
issues. Confining that person to deal exclusively with bilateral issues would be a loss
both for the service (expertise) and for that person (personal, academic and professional
interests). While technology (Internet, communication tools, etc.) now provides the
facilities to integrate diplomatic services, organizational changes are necessary to
enable integration. One possibility is "diplomatic time-sharing": a diplomat
will have time allocated for various activities, regardless of physical location. For
example, a specialist on the law of the sea sent to a bilateral mission may dedicate 20%
of his/her time to consultancy on law of the sea.
CONCLUSIONS
The emergence of the
concept of knowledge management in the business sector re-opens the old question of the
role of knowledge in diplomacy. Diplomats have been reflecting on their working
methodologies and the importance of knowledge since the early days of diplomacy.
The key condition for the
successful implementation of knowledge management in diplomacy is the acceptance of the
new techniques by diplomats themselves. In the end, knowledge management is intended to
capture the knowledge and expertise which is carried by diplomats themselves. Thus any
unwelcome or artificial imposition of knowledge management is a recipe for failure. The
introduction of knowledge management must be carefully planned and implemented, with
continuous adaptation based on the responses of diplomats. In order to succeed, knowledge
management projects must address the specific features of diplomatic professional culture
in which the possession of knowledge and information is jealously guarded.
Most diplomatic services,
like other institutions, are not aware of the knowledge and information they possess. The
first step in introducing knowledge management should therefore be to activate this
knowledge. Although this task is primarily organizational, technology can help. This is an
example of how technology can assist in addressing an issue that would previously been
solved by traditional methods.
While knowledge management
should be needs driven rather than technology driven, it is still important to follow
developments in the technological field. These developments can stimulate new ideas and
provide tools for solutions to traditional problems. Most of these tools will be adapted
from the business sector, with full awareness of the above mentioned differences between
diplomacy and business.
Knowledge management in
diplomatic services should welcome involvement and input from the academic field.
Academics address the question of knowledge from a different perspective which may have
limited applicability for diplomatic activities. However, a merger of the two perspectives
and approaches to knowledge—that of practitioners and that of academics—can
stimulate new ideas and directions for growth.
Knowledge management will
require a gradual but profound restructuring of diplomatic services and the way diplomatic
activities are performed. Any grand design in this respect is doomed to failure. The
process itself will determine the shape and characteristics of new knowledge-based
structures for diplomatic services.
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